FIRST 

LESSONS  IN 
POULTRY 
KEEPING 


SECOND    YEAR    COURSE. 


BY 

JOHN    H.    ROBINSON, 

Editor  FARM-POULTRY, 


SECOND  EDITION. 

PUBLISHED  BY 

FARM-POULTRY   PUBLISHING  CO., 

BOSTON,  MASS. 


GIFT  ©F 


FARM-POULTRY    SERIES    No.    9. 


SECOND  EDITION. 


FIRST   LESSONS 


IIS 


POULTRY  KEEPING. 


COURSE. 


This  series  originally  appeared  in  Farm-Poultry  serially  in  1905-06, 
The  third  year  course  ^series  is  now  running  in  that  paper. 


BY 

John   H. /Robinson, 

Editor  FARM-POULTRY. 

Anthor  Poultrv-Craf  t,  The  Common-Sense  Poultry  Hector,  Broilers  and  Boasters,  Winter  Eggs. 


PRICE    SO    CEINTS. 


PUBLISHED  BY 

FARM-POULTRY  PUB.  CO.,  Boston,  Mass. 
1907. 


b 


COPYRIGHT,  1906 

BY 

FARM-POULTRY  PUB.  CO. 
BOSTON,  MASS. 


Press  of  S.  G.  Robinson,  2K7  Atlantic  Ave.,  Boston. 


CONTENTS. 


LESSON  I. 
INBREEDING  AND  LINE  BREEDING  5 

LESSON  II. 
SOME  COMMON  PHENOMENA  OF  RRF.FDING  -          -          -         16 

LESSON  III. 
MARKET  DUCK  CULTURE  •         •         •         -        24 

LESSON  IV. 
GOOSE  CULTURE  -  •         -         -        34 

LESSON  V. 
TURKEY  GROWING  -  43 

LESSON  VI. 
POSSIBILITIES  AND  PROBABILITIES  IN  POULTRY  CULTURE  -        52 

LESSON  VI.  —  SECTION  II. 
SOME  TYPICAL  VENTURES  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  -  61 

LESSON  VI.  -  SECTION  III. 

BRANCHES  OF  POULTRY  CULTURE  AND  CLASSES  OF  POULTRY  KEEPERS  CONSIDERED 
IN  THEIR  RELATION  TO  PROSPECTIVE  POULTRY  KEEPERS'  EXPECTATIONS 
OF  SUCCESS  -  70 

LESSON  VII. 
LOCATING  AND  LAYING  OUT  POULTRY  PLANTS  -  75 

LESSON  VIII. 
KINDS,  BREEDS,  AND  VARIETIES  OF  FOWLS       -  86 

LESSON  IX. 

ST6CKING  THE  POULTRY  PLANT  __-__..•.  90 


iv.  CONTENTS. 

LESSON  X. 
THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  PART  OF  THE  POULTRYMAN'S  EQUIPMENT  102 

LESSON  XI. 
THE  EXTERNAL  PARASITES  OF  POULTRY  <-  106 

LESSON  XII. 
INTERNAL  PARASITES  OF  POULTRY  «          -       110 

LESSON  XIII. 
EXTERNAL  CHARACTERS  OF  POULTRY,  AND  THEIR  VALUES       -       .          .          -       114 

LESSON  XIV. 
POULTRY  NOMENCLATURE  AND  ABBREVIATIONS  -       125 

LESSON  XV. 
EGGS  AND  EGG  PRODUCTION  -  129 

LESSON  XVI. 
SOME  ELEMENTARY  MORAL  SCIENCE  FOR  EXHIBITORS  -          ~       133 

LESSON  XVII. 
BUSINESS  MORALITY  IN  POULTRY  CULTURE  -          -  139 

LESSON  XVIII. 
WINTER  EGG  PRODUCTION  -  -       146 

LESSON  XIX. 
FIRST  TREATMENT  OF  SICK  FOWLS  -       150 

LESSON  XX. 
POULTRYMEN'S  ORGANIZATIONS     -  -       154 

INDEX  ---_---•--•      158 


NOTE.  — First  Lessons  in  Poultry  Keeping  appeared  in  serial  form  in  FARM-POULTRY,  in  1905.  The 
Second  Series  of  Lessons  in  Poultry  Keeping,  which  takes  up  some  advanced  subjects,  and  some  necessarily 
omitted  the  first  year,  was  published  serially  in  the  same  paper  in  1906.  The  third  year's  course  now  appear* 
Ing  in  FARM-POULTRY,  describes  and  discusses  special  branches  and  combinations  in  poultry  culture  with 
the  same  fullness  of  detail  and  explanation  as  the  Lessons  in  the  earlier  series. 


Lessons  In  Poultry  Keeping, 

SECOND  SERIES. 


LESSON    I. 


Inbreeding  and    Line   Breeding. 


IN  TAKING  up  these  two  closely  related  subjects,  I  anticipate  that  the  treatment  of  them 
which  the  facts  bearing  upon  them  require  will  be  In  a  measure  disappointing  to  many 
readers.    Outside  of  those  who  have  made  a  somewhat  thorough  study  of  the  principles 
of  breeding,  comparatively  few  people  can  be  found  who  will  come  to  a  consideration  of 
the  subject  without  a  prejudice  against  inbreeding,  while  among  novices  in  poultry  breeding 
"line  breeding"  is  very  commonly  regarded  as  an  elaborate  scientific  system  of  mating  by 
which  expert  fanciers  produce  their  finest  specimens. 

Both  of  these  attitudes  are  wrong.  The  prejudice  agiinst  inbreeding,  though  ages  old, 
almost  universal,  and  supported  by  religious  and  social  teachings,  will  not  stand  impartial 
Jnvestigation.  A  reasonable  test  of  inbreeding,  with  due^regard  to  recognized  general  prin- 
ciples of  breeding,  while  it  will  not  invariably  give  results  which  confound  the  claims  of 
those  who  oppose  it,  will  do  so  often  enough  to  discredit  their  arguments,  and  demonstrate 
that  their  position  is  not  tenable. 

Systematic  line  breeding,  according  to  a  prearranged  "scientific"  system  designating  the 
exact  lines  to  be  followed,  and  approximately  the  individuals  to  be  used,  is  rarely  practiced  by 
the  best  breeders.  Their  "  line  breeding"  plans  are  designed  not  to  perpetuate  certain  blood 
lines,  but  to  secure  certain  results  or  establish  certain  characteristics.  If  the  results  they 
seek  can  be  best  obtained  within  the  blood  lines  which  they  are  breeding  they  keep  to  those 
lines,  or  rather  within  certain  lines;  but  they  regard  adherence  to  a  particular  line  of  breed- 
ing as  a  good  thing  only  as  long  as  it  furnishes  the  best  route  toward  the  goal  they  seek — the 
best  means  of  attaining  the  ends  for  which  they  are  working.  At  any  time  that  they  see 
results  in  other  lines  which  make  it  appear  that  blood  from  those  lines  might  be  introduced 
into  their  stock  to  advantage,  they  try  to  get  such  breeding  specimens  of  those  lines  as  seem 
most  suitable  for  their  purpose.  They  use  this  new  blood  at  first  experimentally  to  learn 
what  results  will  come  from  the  introduction  of  the  new  blood.  If  results  are  satisfactory 
the  new  blood  is  gradually  distributed  through  their  whole  stock,  and  with  its  introduction 
begins  a  new  general  line  of  breeding  to  be  followed  only  as  long  as  it  gives  better  results 
than  are  to  be  obtained  by  other  matings. 

Now  while  the  breeder  does   not   bind    himself  to  follow  a  certain   line  or    system,   and, 
theoretically,  is  free  to  introduce  new  blood  at  any  time,  in  practice  he  does  so  only  at  long 
Intervals.    The  reasons  for  this  will  appear  further  on  in  this  lesson.    The  two  facts  I  wish 
io  impress  before  taking  up  the  special  consideration  of  each  of  our  subjects  are: 
1. —  That  inbreeding  is  neither  a  necessary  evil  nor  necessarily  an  evil. 
2.— That  there  is  no  virtue  in  line  breeding  except  as  it  secures  and  fixes  certain 
desired  results. 


6  LESSONS   IN   POULTRY   KEEPING —  SECOND  SERIES. 

What  is  Inbreeding? 

Inbreeding  is  breeding  from  fowls  that  are  ue-\r  kin.  If  the  practice  is  continued  through 
a  number  of  generations  it  is  in-and-in  breeding— if  one  wishes  to  be  precise  in  speech,  though 
common  usage  tends  more  and  more  to  the  simpler  term. 

Inbreeding  in  fowls  extends  to  unions  of  the  nearest  kin  —  sire  and  daughters,  dam  and  son, 
brother  and  sisters. 

Objections   to   Inbreeding. 

Primarily  the  objections  to  inbreeding  are  based,  as  has  been  stated,  on  social  and  religious 
arguments.  As  these  can  apply  in  a  question  like  this  only  in  so  far  as  it  can  be  shown  that 
they  affect  physical  condition  we  need  not  enter  into  them  here.  It  is  sufficient  to  consider  the 
subject  solely  from  the  physical  standpoint,  and  as  it  practically  concerns  the  poultry  breeder. 

It  is  claimed  by  those  who  oppose  inbreeding  that  it  produces  certain  and  rapid  physical 
deterioration.  That  it  leads  inevitably  to  degeneracy  and  sterility.'  They  will  admit  that  by 
inbreeding  some  superficial,  "fancy"  points  may  be  obtained  in  greater  perfection,  but  claim 
that  inbreeding  cannot  be  carried  beyond  a  very  few  generations  except  at  the  expense  of 
vigor,  stamina,  size,  productiveness,  and  that  if  persisted  in  it  leads  surely  to  the  extinction  of 
the  line.  In  support  of  their  position  they  refer  to  instances  cited  by  early  writers  of  the 
Darwinian  school,  to  the  conclusions  of  leading  investigators  of  that  period,  to  occasional 
experiences  with  or  experiments  in  inbreeding  poultry,  and  to  the  very  evident  fact  that  a 
great  many  stocks  of  pure  bred  fowls  are  deficient  in  stamina  and  "  practical  "  qualities.  The 
fact  that  many  mongrel  stocks  on  farms  and  elsewhere  which  breed  indiscriminately;  quickly 
deteriorate  is  also  cited  in  this  connection. 

How  the  Objections  to  Inbreeding  are  Disposed  Of. 

First  let  us  take  up  the  points  just  mentioned  in  the  order  in  which  they  have  been  given. 

Even  if  the  later  scientists  of  the  Darwinian  school,  and  some  of  its  leading  exponents  in 
these  latter  days,  had  maintained  the  early  attitude  on  inbreeding,  it  would  be  pertinent  to 
observe  that  few  of  the  examples  upon  which  they  based  their  earlier  conclusions  are  of 
more  authority  than  the  ordinary  newspaper  story  of  like  occurrences',  and  that  none  (I 
believe)  will  stand  such  a  test  as  would  oe  required  were  they  presented  today  as  new  evi- 
dence. 

But,  inasmuch  as  the  leading  scientists  of  this  school,  on  further  investigation  of  the 
subject,  concluded  that  inbreeding  did  not  necessarily  lead  to  bad  effects,  and  modified  greatly 
their  earlier  views  about  the  advantages  of  crossing — that  is,  of  uniting  wholly  unrelated  or 
different  lines  of  blood,  the  reference  to  their  views  is  chiefly  interesting  as  showing  how  little 

the  condemnation  of  inbreeding  rests  upon  a  careful  and  thorough  investigation  of  the 
subject. 

What  is  said  of  experiences  and  experiments  in  inbreeding  merits  more  attention.  As  to 
the  experiences :  There  is  no  doubt  that  there  have  been  countless  instances  where  inbred 
fowls  have  shown  lack  of  stamina  and  general  deterioration.  But  we  have  to  take  account 
also  of  like  results  where  inbreeding  is  carefully  avoided.  Any  impartial  observation  cover- 
ing a  great  many  cases  will  show  tkat  these  results  are  so  common  where  inbreeding  is 
avoided  as  to  suggest  that  the  real  cause  or  causes  of  them  must  be  sought  elsewhere. 

Experiments  in  inbreeding  poultry  made  by  those  who  advise  against  it  have  — so  far  as  1 
have  seen  the  reports  of  them  —  invariably  shown  quickly  and  unmistakably  the  evil  effects 
they  anticipated;  but  I  have  never  yet  seen  a  report  of  such  experiment  which  showed  that 
it  had  been  planned  with  an  understanding  of  what  was  required  to  make  a  test,  nor  have 
I  ever  known  an  instance  where  a  man  who  had  gone  on  record  in  condemnation  of  inbreeding 
either  attempted  to  reply  to  criticism  of  his  experiment  which  showed  where  it  failed,  or 
by  further  experiment  with  conditions  corrected  attempted  to  verify  his  results.  That  this 
statement  constitutes  a  severe  arraignment  of  the  advocates  of  what  (as  far  as  the  numbers 
who  accept  it  go)  is  the  popular  side  of  an  important  question,  lam  well  aware;  but  as  a 
poultryman  who,  after  years  of  breeding  in  which  inbreeding  was  carefully  avoided,  because 
the  weight  of  authority  on  poultry  culture  seemed  to  lie  that  way,  began  to  test  the  matter 


1NBRLLDING  AND   PRACTICAL  QUALITIES.  7 

lor  himself,  and  as  a  result  of  repeated  experiments  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  opposi- 
tion to  inbreeding  had  little  real  support  either  in  fact  or  reason,  I  make  the  statement 
deliberately,  for  I  question  whether  there  is  any  other  important  matter  upon  which  poultry- 
men  take  opposite  views,  where  the  side  having  the  greatest  numerical  support  —  the  popular 
side  —  can  muster  so  slight  a  support  in  facts  and  logic. 

To  the  general  argument  that  the  stocks  of  fancy  fowls  said  to  be  inbred  are  often  lacking  iu 
.stamina  and  practical  qualities  as  a  result  of  inbreeding,  the  reply  is  that  though  so  often 
assumed  as  the  cause  of  deterioration,  no  one  to  my  knowledge  has  ever  even  attempted  to 
.show  it — to  prove  it  in  any  case.  The  reasoning  in  this  connection  invariably  is  that  if  inbreed- 
ing has  been  practiced  that  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  account  for  deterioration.  Everything 
wrong  is  charged  to  inbreeding,  and  no  effort  made  to  connect  a  trouble  with  any  other  cause, 
though  there  may  be  other  and  more  probable  causes  obtruding  themselves  upon  the  attention 
of  anyone  making  even  a  most  cursory  study  of  the  case.  The  statement  already  made  about 
experiences  in  inbreeding  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  general  argument  about  lack  of  vital- 
ity in  inbred  stocks.  Such  lack  of  vitality  and  the  loss  of  practical  qualities  which  often  goes 
with  it  are  not  the  peculiar  and  inevitable  results  of  inbreeding,  but  are  the  common  results  of 
breeding  from  poorly  developed  specimens  that  are  good  in  some  superficial  point  prized  by 
fanciers,  and  are  just  as  likely  to  be  found  in  the  progeny  of  birds  that  are  no  kin  as  in  the 
offspring  of  those  that  are  near  akin. 

The  use  of  flocks  in  which  indiscriminate  breeding  is  the  rule  to  illustrate  an  argument  against 
inbreeding  furnishes  no  substantial  support  to  such  an  argument,  for  it  is  just  as  appropriate  to 
assign  degeneracy  in  such  flocks  to  violation  of  principles  of  breeding  about  which  there  is  no 
dispute. 

The  truth  is  that  the  case  against  inbreeding  does  not  rest  upon  trustworthy  evidence,  but 
derives  most  of  its  strength  from  the  prejudice  against  it  which  poultry  breeders  almost  with- 
out exception  bring  with  them  to  their  first  efforts  in  breeding  fowls.  Before  a  breeder  is  in  a 
position  to  begin  to  breed  intelligently,  and  to  put  in  practice  the  principles  of  breeding,  he 
must  divest  himself  of  all  prejudice  in  the  matter,  and  consider  it  at  least  possible  that  inbreed- 
ing is  a  safe  as  well  as  a  sure  way  of  arriving  at  certain  results.  In  the  statement  of  the  case 
for  inbreeding  which  follows,  I  will  try  to  make  the  reasons  which  justify  it  as  clear  as  the 
facts  which  disprove  the  general  argument  against  it  will  be  to  anyone  who  gives  it  a  full  and 
fair  test.  To  those  who  will  not  be  convinced  by  argument  and  statement  of  facts  I  can  onlv 
recommend  a  practical  test. 

Inbreeding    and    Practical    Qualities. 

That  "  like  begets  like,"  is  the  fundamental  principle  iu  breeding  for  definite  purposes. 
Every  theory,  rule,  principle,  law,  method,  and  system  of  successful  production  of  live  stock- 
depends  more  or  less  on  this  fundamental  fact,  and  must  take  account  of  it. 

An  interpretation  of  facts  which  fails  to  consider  it,  a  rule  which  excludes  it,  advjce  opposed 
to  it,  is  theoretically  unsound,  and  practically  defective. 

The  idea  that  inbreeding  is  useful  or  necessary  to  develop  "  fancy  "  points,  but  detrimental 
and  destructive  in  other  respects  involves  two  absurd  assumptions: 

(!)• — That  in  the  progeny  of  a  union  of  fowls  (or  animals)  near  akin  the  universal 
law  that  "  like  produces  like,"  is  operative  in  regard  to  one  class  of  character- 
istics,  but  inoperative  with  respect  to  another. 

(2).— That  in  the  progeny  of  a  union  of  fowls  (or  animals)  not  near  akin,  the  law 
"  like  produces  like,"  operates  as  to  the  qualities  in  which  in  rnatings  of  related 
fowls  (or  animals)  it  is  not  operative. 

Such  contradictions  in  the  facts  bearing  upon  the  operation  of  a  supposed  law  or  principle 
would,  if  they  actually  existed,  make  the  practical  application  of  that  law  or  principle  so 
unreliable  and  uncertain  that  it  could  not  be  made  a  fundamental  principle. 

But  there  Is  no  such  contradiction  in  the  facts.  It  has  repeatedly  been  shown  that  "like 
produces  like"  in  practical  or  substantial,  as  well  as  in  fancy  or  superficial  qualities,  both  when 
the  individuals  used  in  the  mating  are  near  akin  and  when  they  are  no  kin. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  progeny  of  a  mating  are  exact  duplicates  of  their  parents,  or 


3  LL550NS  IN   POULTRY  KLLPING  -  SLCOND  SE.RIL5. 

uniformly  of  an  intermediate  type,  or  that  desired  qualities  are  always  reproduced.  In  opera- 
tion the  law  "  like  produces  like,"  is  modified,  as  we  shall  see,  by  the  fact  that  it  includes  the 
more  remote  as  well  as  the  immediate  parents,  but,  as  we  shall  also  see,  these  modifications  of 
and  seeming  variations  from  the  law  are  strictly  in  accordance  with  it,  and  afford  no  basis 
whatever  for  assuming  that  the  law  fails  to  operate  in  regard  to  any  characteristics  or  qualities. 

That  it  often  happens  that  fowls  in  which  some  superficial  qualities  have  been  improved  or 
Intensified  by  inbreeding  have  at  the  same  time  deteriorated  in  size,  stamina,  and  productive- 
ness, no  one  familiar  with  the  phenomena  of  breeding  poultry  would  deny.  But  —  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out  —  it  also  often  happens  that  size,  stamina,  and  productiveness  are 
diminished  in  fowls  that  are  not  inbred.  In  such  cases  the  explanation  given  —  and  it  i»  the 
correct  explanation  —  is  that  lack  of  size,  stamina,  and  productiveness  are  due  to  breeding 
from  birds  lucking  in  these  points.  They  may  also  be  due  to  external  causes,  but  these  need 
not  be  considered  here. 

Now  if  in  mating  unrelated  fowls  it  is  necessary  to  select  for  size,  stamina,  and  productive- 
ness, if  we  wish  to  reproduce  those  qualities  in  the  offspring,  it  is  also  necessary  to  use  the 
«unie  care  in  selecting  for  matings  of  related  fowls.  And  if  by  selecting  for  a  mating  of 
unrelated  fowls,  specimens  having  the  size,  stamina,  and  productiveness  we  want  in  their 
offspring,  we,  as  a  rule,  get  those  qualities  in  the  offspring;  then  if  we  select  in  the  same  way 
for  a  mating  of  related  fowls,  we  may  reasonably  expect  to  get  offspring  like  their  parents  in 
these  essential  qualities.  We  not  only  may  reasonably  expect  to  get  them,  but  we  do  get  them 
as  regularly  as  we  get  results  in  any  other  kind  or  class  of  qualities.  And  the  reason  many  who 
inbreed  for  fancy  points,  and  some  who  make  experiments  in  inbreeding,  note  a  loss  of  "  prac- 
tical" qualities  is  that  they  failed,  in  making  their  matings,  to  provide  for  the  retention  of  those 
qualities. 

To  cite  the  available  evidence  in  support  of  the  propositions  I  have  just  laid  down  would 
extend  this  lesson  beyond  reasonable  limits,  but  I^an  assure  the  reader  that  every  statement  I 
have  made  can  be  amply  supported,  and  also  that  if  he  needs  or  wants  first  hand  proof  he  can 
readily  obtain  it  by  testing  the  matter  for  himself,  observing  that  a  proper  test  requires  that  the 
immediate  parents  be  not  deficient  in  any  quality  it  is  desired  to  have  conspicuous  in  the 
progeny. 

Why  Inbreed? 

So  far  I  have  been  trying  to  show  that  inbreeding  is  not  necessarily  a  cause  of  deterioration 
in  practical  or  in  any  otner  qualities,  and  so  to  convince  the  reader  that  inbreeding  is  a  legiti- 
mate and  useful  means  in  breeding  poultry.  Now  I  want  to  take  the  reader  one  step  further 
and  show  him  that  inbreeding  is  not  merely  a  method  to  be  considered  equally  with  the  practice 
of  constantly  or  periodically  introducing  new  blood,  but  that  it  is  a  better  method— in  fact,  the 
only  method  by  which  high  excellence  and  uniformity  can  be  reached  and  maintained. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  fact  that  the  operation  of  the  law  "  like  produces  like,"  is  not 
Simited  to  the  qualities  of  the  immediate  parents,  but  include  also  those  of  more  remote  ances- 
tors. 

According  to  a  law,  known  as  Dalton's  law  of  heredity,  based  upon  observed  facts  of 
heredity,  the  general  rule  is  that  an  individual  inherits  : 

One-fourth  of  his  qualities  from  each  parent. 

One-sixteenth  from  each  grandparent. 

One  sixty-fourth  from  each  great-grandparent. 

One  two  hundred  and  fifty-sixth  from  each  great-great-grandparent. 

An  individual  has  two  parents,  four  grandparents,  eight  great-grandparents,  sixteen  great- 
great-grandparents.  Then 

From  2  ancestors  in  the  first  preceding  generation  he  inherits  one-half  of  his  qualities  and 
<}h:iracteristics. 

From  4  ancestors  in  the  second  preceding  generation  he  inherits  one-fourth. 

From  8  ancestors  in  the  third  preceding  generation  he  inherits  one-eighth. 

From  16  ancestors  in  the  fourth  preceding  generation  he  inherits  one-sixteenth. 

From  30  ancestors  in  the  four  preceding  generations  he  inherits  fifteen-sixteenths  of  his  char- 
acteristics and  qualities,  leaving  but  one-sixteenth  of  his  inheritance  to  come  from  the  progres- 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  LAW  OF  HLRLDITY.  9 

sively  Increasing  numbers  of  ancestorsMn  all  earlier  generations.  From  each  of  the  64  ancestors 
In  the  fifth  preceding  generation  an  individual  inherits  only  approximately  one  five-thousandth 
of  its  characteristics.  Hence  the  influence  of  this  and  earlier  generations  is  so  slight  that  It  may 
be  disregarded.  An  undesirable  feature  which  had  not  appeared  in  a  stock  for  five  genera- 
tions is  practically  eliminated. 

The  mathematical  statement  of  this  law  has  never — that  I  know  of — been  applied  to  poultry 
breeding  for  the  purpose  of  verification.  Breeders  familiar  with  the  law  observe  that  results 
iu  breeding  seem  on  the  average  to  correspond  very  closely  with  the  results  indicated  by  this 
law,  and  are  satisfied  to  accept  it. 

It  should  also  be  said  that  a  parent  does  not  transmit  alike  to  all  offspring.  There  is  no  abso- 
lute rule —  at  least  none  that  is  known,  and  In  breeding  for  special  results  expectations  are 
based  on  the  probability  that  a  certain  proportion  of  the  offspring  of  a  mating  will  have  the 
qualities  or  characters  sought. 

To  illustrate:— Suppose  a  breeder  of  feather  legged  fowls  finds  in  his  flock  a  pullet  that  is 
absolutely  clean  legged.  We  need  not  inquire  here  how  such  a  pullet  might  be  found  In  such  a 
flock,  and  be  of  the  same  breeding  as  the  others.  It  might  happen.  From  this  pullet  he  con- 
cludes to  try  to  make  a  clean  legged  strain  of  the  variety.  He  mates  her  with  a  male  of  the 
same  breeding  having  the  lightest  leg  feathering.  He  hopes  from  such  a  mating  to  get  a  few 
chickens  bare  legged  like  the  hen.  Most  of  the  chickens  he  expects  to,  come  more  or  less 
feathered  on  the  legs.  What  would  be  of  most  use  to  him  would  be  a  cockerel  clean  legged 
Jike  his  dura. 

According  to  the  general  law  stated  above  he  may  reasonably  expect  about  one-fourth  of  the 
progeny  of  tt'is  hen  to  irherit  from  her,  but  whether  they  are  to  be  bare  legged  or  inherit 
other  qualities  is  uncertain.  But  suppose  he  gets  one  bare  legged  cockerel.  Next  season  he 
mates  this  cockerel  with  Ms  dam.  and  may  reasonably  expect  a  good  proportion  of  the  progeny 
of  this  mating  to  have  clean  legs,  for  both  parents  and  one  grandparent  have  that  feature. 
From  this  mating  he  m;iy  have  clean  legged  specimens  of  both  sexes,  and  mating  these  together 
he  may  expect  clean  legs  10  preponderate,  for  the  parents,  the  grandparents,  and  half  the  great- 
grandparents  were  clean  legged. 

Now  suppose  that  not  seeking  to  make  a  clean  legged  stock  the  breeder  carelessly,  or  toj;et 
some  other  quality  of  the  clean  legged  bird  which  he  desires  to  fix  in  bis  stock,  or,  suppose ^that 
by  some  chance  mating  of  which  he  may  not  know  the  blood  of  a  clean  legged  fowl  is  Intro- 
duced into  a  line  of  feather  legged  ones.  Clean  legs  and  scantily  feathered  legs  are  bound  to 
appear  in  the  progeny  for  several  generations,  no  matter  how  careful  he  may  be  in  future  mat- 
ings,  but  if  he  avoids  using  them,  and  is  careful  not  to  introduce  blood  in  which  the  same  fault 
appeared  more  recently  than  in  the  line  from  which  he  is  trying  to  eliminate  it,  it  will  take  him 
only  a  few  years  to  get  it  virtually  stamped  out.  The  rare  chance  of  inheriting  it  from  the 
ancestor  that  brought  it  into  the  line  may  bring  a  clean  legged  specimen  occasionally  for  many 
generations,  but  they  will  not  come  in  sufficient  numbers  to  seriously  affect  results. 

Let  us  make  now  the  general  application  of  the  law  we  have  examined  as  it  affects  a  single 
quality. 

The  breeder  of  fowls  has  to  deal  with  many  desirable  and  many  undesirable  qualities.  If  he 
breeds  systematically  to  definite  standards  for  a  number  of  years  he  secures  a  certain  uniform- 
ity of  desirable  qualities,  and  may  also  have  a  similar  uniformity  of  undesirable  qualities, 
though  from  the  fact  that  his  selection  with  regard  to  undesirable  qualities  is  a  negative  selec- 
tion that  is  likely  to  be  much  greater  variety  in  faults  (as  he  considers  them)  than  in  merits. 

He  may  mate  together  a  male  and  female  that  are  as  nearly  alike  as  possible  in  every  respect. 
In  proportion  as  they  are  bred  on  the  same  lines,  and  have  the  same  ancestors  or  many  of  the 
s:ime  ancestors  in  common,  they  may  be  expected  to  produce  chicks  uniformly  like  themselves. 
But  if  they  are  entirely  unrelated  the  chances  of  their  reproducing  their  type  are  very  much 
reduced,  and  if —as  is  often  the  case —  one  or  both  of  them  came  from  stock  in  which  the 
ancestry  presents  a  variety  of  different  types,  the  results  are  apt  to  be  very  discouraging,  for, 
as  the  law  given  indicates,  a  fowl  may  have  thirty  different  ancestors,  each  of  which  may  have 
.an  appreciable  eflect  on  his  inheritance  of  qualities. 

By  inbreeding,  by  mating  fowls  bred  on  the  same  lines,  the  number  of  ancestors  is  reduced, 


10  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLEPING  —  SLCOND  5LRIL5. 

and  thus  the  number  of  different  kinds  and  degrees  of  attributes  which  the  fowl  may  inherit, 
are  reduced,  while  its  inheritance  of  qualities  common  in  its  ancestry,  is  increased  and  intensi- 
fied. Of  course  this  applies  to  faults  as  well  as  to  merits.  It  is  because  inbreeding  increase* 
or  fixes  the  faults  as  well  as  the  excellencies  of  the  line  that  when  it  is  practiced  by  those  who 
do  not  give  proper  attention  to  selection  to  avoid  weaknesses,  or  whose  methods  of  handling 
fowls  are  injurious,  it  may  make  their  stock  deteriorate  more  rapidly  than  if  they  were  con- 
stantly bringing  in  new  blood.  Indeed  the  frequent  introduction  of  new  blood  tends  to  a  gen- 
eral mediocrity  in  the  stock,  without  either  striking  excellence  or  marked  degeneracy  in  any 
respect. 

The  breeder,  however,  is  not  working  for  mediocrity,  but  for  excellence,  and  the  highest 
excellence  obtainable.  To  get  this  experience  has  demonstrated  that  inbreeding  —  and  very 
close  inbreeding —  is  necessary. 

What  is  Line  Breeding? 

Line  breeding  may  mean  many  different  things.  The  phrase  is  used  very  loosely.  It  is  com- 
mon in  advertisements  and  circulars.  Breedc  rs  speak  of  their  stock  as  "  line  bred,"  or  line  bred 
for  so  many  years.  So  used  the  term  conveys  no  definite  information. 

In  varieties  in  which  special  Dialings  are  used  to  produce  exhibition  specimens  of  the  different 
sexes,  each  sex  is  prodifced  according  to  a  general  system  of  line  breeding,  the  males  and  females 
of  the  different  lines  being  of  distinctly  different  color  types.  Often  a  breeder  of  such  varieties, 
speaking  of  his  stock  as  bred  in  line  means  only  that  his  stock  has  been  bred  always  from  bird* 
of  the  appropriate  type  and  general  line  of  breeding. 

Again,  when  a  breeder  says  he  breeds  in  line  he  may  mean  only  that  his  present  stock  con- 
tains some  of  the  same  blood  as  that  with  which  he  started,  or  as  that  from  which  he  dates  hi* 
line  breeding.  The  stock  may  not  have  been  bred  at  all  systematically,  but  he  calls  it  line  bred 
because  he  can  follow  a  certain  line  of  blood  back  through  it. 

But  systematic  or  "  scientific-'  line  breeding  is  something  quite  different.  As  a  rule  it  begins- 
in  the  discovery  of  a  single  bird  of  unusual  excellence  and  breeding  power,  or  prepotency. 
The  breeder  who  is  intelligently  seeking  for  certain  results  may  make  many  efforts  to  start  a 
satisfactory  line  of  breeding,  but  not  until  he  begins  to  get  satisfactory  results  does  he  settle 
down  to  one  line.  The  others  are  merely  tentative. 

Having  produced,  or  procured,  and  discovered  through  its  progeny  a  specimen  fit  to  become 
the  head  of  a  line,  the  breeder  proceeds  systematically  to  perpetuate  this  line.  He  studies  to 
get  the  type  of  the  opposite  sex  best  suited  to  use  with  his  phenomenal  bird  to  reproduce  its 
excellencies.  Its  finest  offspring  of  the  same  sex  especially  are  mated  as  far  as  possible  to  main- 
tain in  at  least  a  few  of  each  generation  the  highest  possible  development  of  the  excellence 
reached  in  it.  At  the  same  time  other  matings  are  made  both  along  the  same  blood  lines,  and 
with  promising  combinations,  that  in  case  at  any  time  tie  main  line,  or  the  direct  line  as  main- 
tained in  the  finest  breeding  specimens  in  each  generation  should  prove  unsatisfactory  or  need 
reinforcement  of  the  same  line  of  blood,  there  may  be  abundant  material  from  which  to  select. 

Breeding  in  this  way  many  of  our  best  breeders  continue  a  single  line  of  breeding  through 
many  years.  Sometimes  it  is  a  male  line  that  is  kept  unbroken ;  sometimes  a  female  line.  Some- 
times there  is  not  direct  continuity  in  either  male  or  female  line,  but  an  irregular  alternation 
according  to  the  judgment  of  the  breeder  as  to  the  best  way  to  use  available  birds. 

Rarely  is  the  breeding  according  to  a  prearranged  schedule.  Results  of  matings  are  too 
uncertain  for  that.  The  successful  matings,  however,  and  those  which  produced  birds  whioh 
became  of  importance  in  their  line  are  a  matter  of  records,  which  constitute  in  a  general  way 
the  pedigree  chart  of  the  stock.  This,  briefly,  is  line  breeding  as  practiced  by  the  most  succes- 
ful  breeders  and  fanciers.  They  breed  closely,  often  breeding  in  and  in,  again  and  again,  but 
always  intent  on  the  points  of  excellence  they  prize  most,  and  never  maintaining  a  line  inereiy 
for  the  sake  of  continuing  it.  As  I  stated  at  the  outset,  with  the  intelligent  breeder  a  system 
is  a  means  to  an  end,  and  any  special  system  or  line  of  matings  is  to  be  followed  only  as  long  as 
it  appears  to  be  the  best  means  to  gain  the  ends  sought. 


FELCH'5  BREEDING  CHART.  11 

Theoretic    Line    Breeding. 

We  oome  now  to  line  breeding  as  most  beginners  and  some  more  advanced  students  of  breed- 
Ing  problems  want  it:  That  Is,  line  breeding  according  to  a  prearranged  schedule,  the  special 
object  of  which  is  to  avoid  the  evils  of  Inbreeding. 

Having  read  what  I  have  said  on  the  subject  of  inbreeding,  the  reader  hardly  needs  to  lie 
told  that  personally  I  believe  the  rational  way  to  avoid  the  evils  alleged  to  result  from  inbreed- 
ing is  by  constant  rigid  selection,  and  that  if  this  is  practiced  a  systematic  plan  of  producing 
(specimens  of  certain  degrees  of  consanguinity  to  be  used  at  pre-ordained  stages  of  the  system, 
is  superfluous,  and  as  this  belief  rests  on  repeated  tests  in  my  own  flocks  as  well  as  a  consider- 
able volume  of  testimony  from  others,  to  me  the  practical  value  of  work  of  this  kind  seems- 
very  small.  In  my  mind  the  whole  science  of  breeding  resolves  itself  into  the  selection  of  the 
best  specimens,  and  provided  due  attention  is  given  to  all  essential  qualities  the  matter  of  rela- 
tionship may  be  safely  disregarded.  In  practice,  the  selection  of  the  most  suitable  specimens 
to  mate  together  will  generally  keep  a  breeder  who  has  a  large  stock  of  high  degree  of  merit 
within  his  own  stock  without  often  calling  for  consecutive  matings  of  very  closely  related  birds. 
The  rule  of  making  strength  in  one  sex  compensate  for  weakness  in  the  corresponding  section 
in  a  mate  of  the  opposite  sex,  if  followed,  keeps  the  breeder  clear  of  the  error  of  mating  related 
birds  having  the  same  serious  defect,  a  mating  which  is  wrong  whether  birds  are  related  or  not. 

However,  for  the  information  of  those  interested,  I  reproduce  herewith  I.K.  Felch's  "Breed- 
ing Chart"  and  an  illustration  of  the  practical  application  of  it,  which  he  furnished  this  paper 
several  years  ago.  Even  though  one  may  not  think  it  necessary  to  adopt  such  a  system  for  the 
purpose  of  modifying  the  effects  of  inbreeding  familiarity  with  a  chart  like  this  may  be  made 
useful  in  several  ways,  and  especially  in  indicating  a  method  of  diagramming  a  record  of 
matings,  and  in  illustrating  the  variety  of  matings  that  may  be  made  using  the  same  lines  of 
blood.  Such  a  chart  also  illustrates  admirably  the  point  made  in  the  discussion  on  inbreeding 
of  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  ancestors  accomplished  by  inbreeding. 

The  explanation  of  the  chart  and  the  system  I  condense  from  two  articles  on  the  subject  by 
Mr.  Felch.  It  may  be  noted  that  apart  from  the  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  effects  of 
inbreeding,  Mr.  Felch's  advice  about  breeding  strongly  reinforces  what  I  have  said  about  the 
necessity  of  care  in  selection,  and  the  importance  of  considering  a  line  or  system  of  breeding  a* 
the  means,  not  the  end.  Mr0  Felch  says: — 

We  know  that  we  can  take  a  single  pair,  and  raise  thousands  in  the  same  vigor,  form,  and 
beauty  of  plumage  as  the  p:iir  we  start  with;  but  this  demands  that  our  selections  shall  be  of 
the  best  and  most  healthy  specimens  of  their  race,  and  that  they  shall  be  kept  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions. 

Our  chart  shows  how  a  pair  and  its  progeny  can  be  bred,  without  resorting  to  breeding 
that  would  be  termed  incestuous.  The  art  of  this  consists  in  being  able  at  all  times  to  produce 
a  flock  that  is  one-half  the  blood  of  the  original  pair. 

By  a  careful  examination  of  the  chart  it  will  be  seen  that  all  groups  to  the  right  of  the  center 
have  a  preponderance  of  the  blood  of  the  male  used  in  the  first  mating,  and  all  groups  to  the 
left  of  the  center  have  a  preponderance  of  the  blood  of  the  female,  the  figures  showing  just 
what  the  proportion  of  blood  is,  while  the  center  groups  are  each  and  all  just  one-half  the  blood 
of  each  of  the  original  parents. 

Experience  has  taught  us  that  to  breed  for  three  generations  the  same  blood  is  disastrous. 
Were  we  to  mate  male  and  female  from  group  3,  and  to  repeat  the  mating  in  the  progeny  for 
three  generations  we  would  produce  sterility  and  hick  of  vigor.  But  our  groups  3,  7, 11,  ami 
16  are  all  one-half  of  the  blood  of  each  ancestor,  and  sound,  vigorous,  and  productive,  because 
of  the  method  of  their  production,  and  just  as  strong  as  group  3,  which  was  the  direct  issue  of 
the  original  mating. 

Throughout  we  persist  in  an  unbroken  line  of  males,  as  demonstrated  in  the  black  lines  of 
the  chart.  We  establish  a  line  of  breeding  that  will  be  wonderful  in  its  like  producing  like 
quality.  In  the  first  product,  group  3,  there  may  not  be  a  single  male  to  present  the  type  of 
No.  2,  nor  may  there  be  a  pullet  in  the  type  of  No.  1,  but  by  breeding  back  we  secure  the 
original  types  of  both,  by  which  when  we  make  the  second  group  of  one-half  bloods  we  find 
both  males  and  females  to  our  liking. 


12 


LL55ONS  IN   POULTRY  KEEPING —  SECOND  SERIE5. 

MALE 


Felch  Breeding  Chart. 

Or  it  may  be  that  in  group  3  we  have  discovered  a  type  we  admire  above  that  of  the  original 
pair.  If  so,  such  should  be  our  standard,  and  in  subsequent  matings  we  should  take  care  to 
«elect  only  birds  of  that  type,  until  all  our  matings  result  in  that  uniform  type,  size,  and  color. 

To  make  the  chart  clear  we  say  that  each  dotted  line  represents  the  female  as  having  been 
selected  from  the  upper  group  to  which  it  leads,  while  the  solid  line  shows  the  male  as  having 
been  taken  from  the  upper  group  indicated.  Each  circle  represents  the  progeny  of  a  male  from 
the  upper  group  to  which  the  solid  line  from  it  leads,  mated  with  a  female  from  the  upper 
group  to  which  the  dotted  line  from  it  leads. 

Female  No.  1  mated  with  male  No.  2  produced  group  No.  3,  which  is  one-half  the  blood  of 
;sire  and  dam. 

Females  from  group  No.  3,  mated  back  to  their  own  sire  No.  2,  have  produced  group  No.  5, 
which  is  |  of  the  blood  of  the  sire,  No.  2,  and  |  the  blood  of  the  dam,  No.  1. 

A  male  from  group  No.  3,  mated  back  to  bis  own  dam,  No.  1,  produces  group  No.  4,  which 
is  £  of  the  blood  of  the  dam,  No.  1,  and  i  the  blood  of  the  sire,  No.  2. 

Again  we  select  a  cockerel  from  group  No.  o  and  a  pullet  from  group  4,  or  vice-versa,  which 
will  produce  group  7,  which  is  mathematically  half  the  blood  of  each  of  the  original  pair,  No.  1 
and  No.  2.  This  is  a  second  step  towards  producing  a  new  strain. 


APPLICATION  OF  BRLLDING  CHART. 


13 


Mto 


led 


Felch  Breeding  Chart  Applied  to  Line  Described  in  Text. 

Females  from  No.  8  mated  back  to  the  original  male,  No.  2,  produce  group  8,  that  are  I  the- 
blood  of  No.  2,  and  a  cockerel  from  No.  4,  mated  back  to  the  original  dam,  No.  1,  produces- 
group  No.  6,  that  is  I  the  blood  of  the  original  dam,  and  only  %  the  blood  of  the  original  sire. 

Again  we  select  a  male  from  No.  8  and  females  from  No.  6,  and  for  a  third  time  produce- 
chicks  (in  group  No.  11)  that  are  half  the  blood  of  the  original  pair.  This  is  the  3d  step,  and 
the  9th  mating  in  securing  complete  breeding  of  our  new  strain.  In  all  this  we  have  not 
broken  the  line  of  sires,  for  every  one  has  come  from  a  group  in  which  the  preponderance  of 
blood  was  that  of  the  original  sire.  Nos.  2,  8, 13,  and  18  are  virtually  the  blood  of  No.  2. 

We  have  reached  a  point  where  we  would  establish  a  male  line  whose  blood  is  virtually  that 
of  our  original  dam,  and  we  now  select  from  No.  6  a  male  which  we  mate  with  a  female  from 
No.  4  and  produce  group  9,  which  is  13-16  the  blood  of  the  original  dam  No.  1,  and  3-16  the- 
blood  of  the  original  sire. 

Again  we  select  a  male  from  No.  9  and  a  female  of  the  new  strain,  No.  1,  and  produce 
group  14,  which  becomes  21-32  of  the  blood  of  the  original  dam,  thus  preserving  her  strain 
of  blood. 


14  LE55ONS  IN   POULTRY   KEEPING  —  SECOND  5LRIL5. 

A  male  from  No.  13,  which  is  13-16  the  blood  of  the  original  sire  No.  2,  mated  to  females 
-from  No.  10,  which  are  5-16  the  blood  of  the  original  sire,  No.  2,  gives  us  group  17,  which  is 
•9-16  the  blood  of  said  sire. 

While  in  No.  16  we  have  the  new  strain  and  in  No.  18  the  strain  of  our  original  sire,  No.  2, 
we  have  three  distinct  strains,  and  by  and  with  this  systematic  use  we  can  go  on  breeding  for 
all  time  to  come.  Remember  that  each  dotted  line  is  a  female  selection  and  each  solid  line  the 
male  selection. 


To  make  all  this  plain  to  the  novice,  I  shall,  in  showing  by  the  pedigrees  of  individual  fowls 
how  to  follow  my  diagram,  number  both  males  and  females  by  the  number  of  the  group  as 
seen  in  the  chart,  they  being  of  that  group;  while  in  the  list  of  names  will  be  added  =  £,  f,  J, 
•etc.,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  fraction  showing  the  extent  of  the  preponderance  of  the  blood 
of  the  strain,  the  balance  of  the  unit  being  the  percentage  of  the  strain  mated:  — all  names 
commencing  with  A  being  of  Honest  Abe,  No.  2  strain ;  all  names  commencing  with  W  having 
in  excess  the  blood  of  Lady  Washington  and  her  strain;  other  names  representing  one-half 
the  blood  of  each  of  these  two  strains.  This  middle  ground  or  reservoir  of  blood,  we  create 
•of  our  two  strains,  that  we  may  both  preserve  line  breeding  as  applied  to  the  individuals,  and 
when  we  see  fit  to  break  the  individual  line,  may  still  maintain  the  line  breeding  of  the  strains. 

We  now  proceed  to  name  the  individuals  and  create  tbeir  pedigrees. 

The   Male    List. 

Honest  Abe,  No.  2,  our  original  sire. 

Adam  Wall,  No.  3,  (i)  ;  sire,  Honest  Abe,  No.  2;  dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1. 

Walsingham,  No.  4,  (|)  ;  sire,  Adam  Wall,  No.  3;   dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1. 

Advocate,  No.  5,  (|)  ;  sire,  Honest  Abe,  No.  2;  dam,  Julia,  No.  3. 

Warwick,  No.  6,  (£)  ;  sire,  Walsingham,  No.  4;  dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1. 

Acrobat,  No.  7,  (£) ;  sire,  Advocate,  No.  5;  dam,  Lady  Wiley,  No.  4. 

Aaron  Burr,  No.  8,  (£) ;  sire,  Honest  Abe,  No.  2;  dam,  Anna,  No.  5. 

Waldermier,  No.  9,  (13-16) ;  sire,  Warwick,  No.  6;  dam,  Lady  Wiley,  No.  4. 

Albert,  No.  12,  (11-16) ;  sire,  Aaron  Burr,  No.  8;  dam,  Calve,  No.  7. 

•Gen.  Adams,  No.  13,  (13-16) ;  sire,  Aaron  Burr,  No.  8;  dam,  Anna,  No.  5. 

•Gen.  Walker,  No.  14,  (21-32) ;  sire,  Waldermier,  No.  9;  dam,  Kate,  No.  11. 

Wallace,  No.  15,  (9-16) ;  sire,  Albert,  No.  12;  dam,  Winfred  Lass,  No.  9. 

•Gen.  Arthur,  No.  18,  (21-32) ;  sjre,  Gen.  Adams,  No.  12;  dam,  Kate's  sister,  No.  11. 

The   Female    List. 

L*ady  Washington,  No.  1,  original  dam. 

Julia,  No.  3,  (4) ;  sire,  Honest  Abe,  No.  2;  dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1. 

Anna,  No.  5,  (|) ;  sire,  Honest  Abe,  No.  2;  dam,  Julia,  No.  3. 

JLady  Wiley  and  sisters,  No.  5,  (|) ;  sire,  Adam  Wall,  No.  3;  dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1. 

Lady  Weeks,  No.  6,  (J) ;  sire,  Walsingham,  No.  4;  dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1. 

Calve,  No.  7,  (i) ;  sire,  Advocate,  No.  5;  dam,  Lady  Wiley,  No.  4. 

Winfred  Lass,  No.  9,  (13-16) ;  sire,  Warwick,  No.  6;  dam,  Lady  Wiley,  No.  4. 

Lady  Wallace,  No.  10,  (11-16) ;  sire,  Acrobat,  No.  7;  dam,  Lady  Weeks,  No.  6. 

Kate,  No.  11,  (£) ;  sire,  Aaron  Burr,  No.  8;  dam,  Lady  Weeks,  No.  6. 

Lady  Wade,  No.  15,  (9-16) ;  sire,  Albert,  No.  12;  dam,  Winfred  Lass,  No.  9. 

Countess,  No.  16,  (4) ;  sire,  Albert,  No.  12;  dam,  Lady  Wallace,  No.  10. 


It  now  becomes  easy  to  mate  up  our  pens. 

Pen  No.  1  —  sire,  Honest  Abe,  No.  2;  dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1,  — produc-s  group  No. 
3,  half-bloods. 

Pen  No.  2  —  sire,  Honest  Abe,  No.  2 ;  dams,  Julia,  No.  3,  and  sisters,  by  Honest  Abe,  No.  2, 
produces  group  No.  5,  three-fourths  blood  of  Honest  Abe,  No.  2. 

Pen  No.  3  —  sire,  Honest  Abe,  No.  2 ;  dams,  Anna,  No.  5,  and  sisters,  by  Honest  Abe,  No. 
3J;  2d  dam,  Julia,  No.  3,  by  Honest  Abe,  No.  2;  3d  dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1,  —  produces 
group  No.  8,  seven-eighths  blood  of  Honest  Abe,  No.  2. 


BREEDING  LINE  OF  5IRE5.  15 

Pen  No.  4  —  sire,  Adam  Wall,  No.  3,  by  Honest  Abe, No.  2,  out  of  Lady  Washington,  No.  1 ; 
dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1  —  produces  group  No.  4,  three-fourths  blood  of  Lady  Washing- 
ton, No.  1. 

Pen  No.  5  —  sire,  Walsingham,No.  4,  by  Adam  Wall,  No.  3,  out  of  Lady  Washington,  No.  1; 
dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1,  —  produces  group  No.  6,  seven-eighths  blood  of  Lady  Wash- 
ington, No.  1. 

Pen  No.  6—  sire,  Advocate,  No.  5,  by  Honest  Abe,  No.  2,  out  of  Julia,  No.  3,  by  Honest  Ahe, 
No.  2,  out  of  Lady  Washington,  No.  1 ;  dams,  Lady  Wiley,  No.  4,  and  sisters,  by  Adam  Wall, 
No.  3;2d  dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1;  produces  group  No.  7,  one-half  the  blood  of  each 
strain. 

Pen  No.  7— sire,  Aaron  Burr,  No.  8,  by  Honest  Abe,  No.  1,  out  of  Anna,  No.  5;  dams, 
Lady  Weeks,  No.  6,  and  sisters,  by  Walsingham,  No.  4;  2d  dam,  Lady  Washington,  No.  1, 
produces  group  No.  11,  one-half  the  blood  of  each, strain. 

Thus  do  I  name  pedigree  and  mate  up  to  and  including  the  .fourth  generation,  leaving  the 
reader  to  mate  the  remainder  of  the  chart. 

Up  to  this  point  it  is  line  bred  both  individually  and  as  to  the  strains,  and  so  is  It  line  bred  on 
the  Honest  Abe  strain  both  as  individuals  to  the  end  of  groups  17  and  18. 

But  we  now  break  the  female  line  by  producing  a  male  of  her  line  as  her  heir,  and  mating 
him,  Warwick,  No.  6,  to  Lady  Wiley,  No.  4,  to  produce  Waldermier,  No.  9,  and  his  sisters, 
Winfred  Lasses,  continuing  the  male  line  by  mating  Waldermier,  No.  9,  to  Kate,  No.  11,  thus 
producing  Gen.  Walker,  No.  14,  and  his  sisters  as  seen  in  group  14.  In  all  this  we  have  pre- 
served the  preponderance  of  the  blood  of  Lady  Washington  strain. 

Now  the  whole  strength  of  this  line  of  breeding  stands  on  the  breeder  being  able  to  produce 
a  group  of  half-bloods  from  within  his  own  flocks. 

.  To  make  the  strain  line  of  breeding  more  plain:  —  Suppose  we  follow  the  rule  many  do  of 
buying  a  foreign  pullet  to  produce  a  group  of  half-bloods,  and  her  set  of  pullets  are  bred  back 
to  the  sire,  or  a  male  of  his  strain,  these  three-fourths  blood  pullets  again  bred  back  to  a  male  of 
the  sire's  strain.  This  would  be  breeding  in  line  to  one  strain,  which  is  just  half  the  force  of 
our  chart.  These  three  males  being  different  males  of  one  strain,  this  would,  be  only  strain 
breeding ,  not  line  breeding  with  an  unbroken  line  of  sires.  If  our  selections  are  carefully 
made,  ever  keeping  In  mind  the  types  we  start  with,  or  the  cherished  types  of  our  strain,  then 
this  breeding  in  line  to  one's  strain  may  prove  as  forceful  in  results  as  adhering  to  a  line  of 
sires  —  from  sire  to  son. 


16  LL55ON5  IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  —  5ECOND  5ER1E5. 


LESSON     II. 


Some    Common   Phenomena  of  Breeding. 


IN  the  last  lesson  we  discussed  the  subject  of  heredity  in  its  relation  to  systematic  methods 
of  breeding  to  special  standards.  In  this  lesson  we  are  to  consider  various  phenomena  of 
heredity  as  they  practically  concern  the  breeder  in  his  work. 

Since  the  selling  and  buying  of  eggs  for  hatching  purposes  has  become  so  general,  the 
old  question,  "  Which  is  the*  mother  of  the  chick  —  the  hen  that  laid  the  egg,  or  the  hen  that 
hatched  it?"  has  become  of  less  interest  than  the  question, —  Which  is  the  breeder  of  the  chick, 
the  man  who  produced  and  mated  the  stock  from  which  it  came,  or  the  man  who  hatched  and 
reared  it? 

Without  attempting  to  make  a  final  answer  to  that  question,  let  me  say  that  the  production  of 
fine  fowls  requires  a  combination  of  skill  in  mating  and  skill  in  growing.  To  produce  the 
finest  stock  we  must  have  first  of  all  parent  stock  of  fine  quality,  properly  mated,  but  the 
product  will  not  equal  or  even  approach  the  excellence  of  its  ancestors  unless  it  is  properly 
handled  as  it  grows.  It  is  important  that  the  reader  should  keep  this  fact  constantly  in 
mind  both  when  applying  principles  of  breeding,  and  when  looking  for  confirmation  of  those 
principles  in  the  results  of  his  matings,  for  if  the  conditions  under  which  a  fowl  is  grown  are 
unsatisfactory  the  result  may  be  a  bird  very  different  in  shape,  color  of  plumage,  vigor,  etc. ,. 
from  what  it  might  have  been  under  conditions  providing  for  the  full  development  of  its  possi- 
bilities; and  conditions  adverse  to  full  natural  development  are  apparently  not  limited  in  their 
effects  to  failure  to  fully  develop  the  qualities  directly  transmitted  from  the  parent  stock;  but 
there  is  some  reason  to  suppose  that  features  eliminated  from  a  stock  by  careful  selection  some- 
times reappear  in  ill  nourished,  ill  cared  for  chickens,  when  they  would  not  have  developed 
under  better  conditions.  Such  a  point  as  this  is  of  course  difficult  to  demonstrate,  for  we  can- 
not show  positively  in  what  way  any  given  individual  fowl  might  have  developed  differently 
under  different  conditions.  But  comparison  of  chicks  from  the  same  breeding  stock,  hatched 
and  reared  by  different  parties,  often  shows  them  so  different  that  it  is  hard  to  believe  they 
could  have  been  produced  from  the  same  parents. 

Hence,  for  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  laws  of  heredity,  we  must  discriminate  between 
results  as  found  in  well  developed  specimens  and  results  as  found  in  ill  developed  specimens. 

Prepotency  in   Breeding. 

As  a  rule,  pure  bred  fowls  transmit  to  their  progeny  a  much  greater  proportion  of  their 
individual  excellence  than  mongrel  fowls,  and  pure  bred  fowls  that  have  been  carefully  bred 
in  line  transmit  their  qualities  to  their  offspring  more  surely  than  those  that  have  been  bred 
in  a  haphazard  way.  This  is  because  of  the  cumulative  breeding  back  of  them,  and  is  easily 
explained  by  the  general  law  of  heredity  given  in  the  last  lesson. 


WHAT    PREPOTENCY   LS.  17 

The  fancier  and  careful  breeder,  however,  are  not  working  merely  for  fair  to  good  average 
results  in  the  transmission  of  breed  or  variety  characteristics.  Their  constant  endeavor  is  to 
bring  the  average  of  the  stock  as  near  as  possible  to  the  best  prevailing  types,  and  while  work- 
ing zealously  toward  this  end  they  are  still  seeking  for  new,  improved,  and  advanced  types. 

The  law  of  heredity  we  have  discussed  deals  with  the  problems  of  heredity  only  in  a  general 
way.  In  its  general  application  it  seeks  to  secure  uniformity  by  having  an  ancestry  as  solidly" 
as  possible  in  representation  of  the  qualities  sought.  As  far  as  is  known  there  is  no  way 
of  telling  beforehand  what  qualities  will  appear  in  any  mating  or  generation,  or  in  what  com- 
binations or  proportions.  While,  as  has  been  said,  it  is  a  general  fact  that  good  breeding  tells 
plainly  in  the  product  of  a  mating,  it  is  also  true  that  it  does  not  show  an  equality  of  results. 
Some  fowls  have  special  power  to  mark  their  progeny  like  themselves,  either  in  general 
appearance  or  in  one  or  more  important  characteristics.  This  power  is  not  dependent  upon 
quality  or  stamina.  It  is  found  in  fowls  of  all  degrees  of  quality  and  vigor,  but  as  it  is  prized 
only  when  found  in  those  of  some  special  merit  it  is  apt  to  be  passed  without  recognition  in 
others. 

A  fowl  which  has  this  power  to  "mark"  its  offspring  like  itself  is  said  to  be  prepotent. 
The  combination  of  quality  and  prepotency  in  the  same  individual,  while  comparatively  rare, 
occurs  often  enough  to  have  a  very  conspicuous  influence  on  the  development  of  our  stocks  of 
thoroughbred  fowls.  A  prepotent  bird  may  transmit  only  its  other  qualities,  (or  some  of 
them),  to  its  progeny,  or  it  may  transmit  its  prepotency  also,  giving  a  line  of  stock  remarkable 
for  great  excellence  and  the  power  of  transmitting  it. 

This  prepotency  is  not  the  same  thing  as  the  cumulative  breeding  power  which  is  gained  by 
careful  breeding,  though  the  two  may  so  unite  that  it  would  be  practically  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish between  them.  The  difference  between  them  is  easily  seen  when  a  fowl  is  found  that 
is  notubly  superior  to  its  ancestors,  and  marks  this  superiority  on  its  progeny  to  a  much  larger 
degree  than  our  law  of  heredity  indicates  would  be  the  average  influence  of  u  parent.  It  may 
also  be  seen  in  cases  where  an  objectionable  feature  persists  in  a  stock  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  is  usual.  Though  in  most  cases  objectionable  features  disappear  at  aUout  the  rate  the  law 
indicates,  it  happens  quite  often  that  when  a  fowl  withrsome  specially  good  qualities  and  one  or 
more  pronounced  faults  is  bred  from  in  the  expectation  of  breeding  the  good  quality  into  a 
stock,  and  the  bad  quality  out  of  it  as  quickly  as  possible,  the  fowl  proves  to  be  prepotent  as  to 
the  bad  quality  as  well  as  the  good,  or,  perhaps,  prepotent  as  to  the  bad  quality  and  not  as  to 
the  good,  and  the  effort  has  to  be  abandoned.  The  prepotent  fowl  can  be  known  only  through 
the  results  obtained  by  breeding  it.  Some  fowls  seem  to  be  prepotent  however  mated,  others 
are  prepotent  in  some  matings  and  not  in  others.  The  reasons  for  this  cannot  be  explained,  but 
the  breeder  can  ascertain  the  facts,  and  frequently  can  learn  them  in  time  to  make  good  prac- 
tical use  of  them.  It  is  generally  considered  the  best  policy  to  continue  a  mating  that  has 
given  especially  good  results  as  long  as  the  fowls  in  it  are  fit  for  breeding.  When  a  fowl  of 
good  quality  proves  an  unsatisfactory  stock  getter  in  one  muting,  a  breeder  generally  tries  it 
mated  differently  the  next  season,  and  every  season  as  long  as  fit  for  breeding,  until  he  gets 
nuch  results  as  the  quality  of  the  bird  leads  him  to  expect  it  might  give  if  properly  mated.  In 
all  work  of  this  kind,  the  greater  one's  experience  in  breeding,  and  the  more  thorough  his 
knowledge  of  the  stock  he  is  working  with,  the  oftener  he  is  likely  to  make  matings  that  give 
satisfaction,  though  none  know  better  than  the  breeders  of  greatest  experience  and  skill  how 
often  their  most  careful  matiugs  produce  stock  not  up  to  their  expectations. 

Th,e    Ways  of  Heredity. 

There  is  quite  a  prevalent  opinion  among  breeders  that  the  female  marks'  her  progeny 
especially  with  size,  shape,  and  practical  qualities,  while  the  male  gives  them  color,  coml>,  and 
superficial  characteristics.  How  this  opinion  arose,  we  do  not  know.  That  it  is  erroneous,  a 
little  experience  in  crossing  breeds  of  fowls,  or  observations  on  human  families  of  our  acquaint- 
ance, will  quickly  convince  most  people.  The  latter  test  is  easier  to  make,  for  anyone  can  at 
•AII}'  time  make  it  mentally. 


18  LL55ON5  IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  —  5LCOND  5LRIL5. 

Students  of  the  features  of  heredity  recognize  several  very  ^common  phenomena: 
The  male  offspring  resemble  their  site,  and  the  female  offspring  their  dam. 
The  male  offspring  resemble  their  dam,  and  the  female  offspring  their  sire. 
The  offspring,  both  male  and  female,  or  either,  resemble  a  grandparent  more  than 

either  parent. 

The  offspring  may,  fu  any  point  considered,  inherit  from  both  sire  and  dam,  their 
quality  being,  in  some  degree,  intermediate  between  the  parents,  or,  in  case  of  a 
quality  in  which  the  parents  are  alike,  being  in  excess  of  either. 

These  are  the  most  common  and  conspicuous  features  of  heredity.  In  the  breeding  of  pure 
bred  fowls,  so  like  in  many  respects,  it  would  be  difficult  to  trace  the  influences  of  individual 
parents  and  grandparents  clearly  enough  to  distinguish  such  phenomena  in  ordinary  cases,  but 
they  may  be  seen  occasionally  when  birds  of  marked  .prepotency  are  used  for  breeding,  and 
they  are  traced  with  ea*e  in  many  mating*  of  cros>bred  fowls,  especially  in  points  of  strong 
resemblance  or  great  difference. 

J* 

I  think  the  reader  is  now  ready  to  believe  that  the  phenomena  of  heredity  are  very  complex. 
Tne  different  features  of  heredity  ju>t  mentioned  do  not  occur  independently  and  separately. 
All  of  them  are  sometimes  observed,  and  in  many  degrees,  in  the  progeny  of  a  single  mating, 
and  all  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  general  law  of  heredity  given  in  the  preceding  lesson, 
when  considered  in  connection  with  a  few  other  breeding  principles*, such  as  prepotency,  which 
we  have  just  discussed,  and  rever>ion  or  atavism,  which  will  be  discussed  a  little  further  on. 

The  poi:»t  I  wish  to  introduce  here  is  that  the  law  of  heredity  or  inheritance  is  responsible 
for  variations  from  established  or  favorite  types  as  well  as  for  the  perpetuation  of  those  types. 
It  is  often  assumed  that  in  the  production  of  stock  there  are  two  warring  tendencies — the 
tendency  for  like  to  beget  like,  and  a  tendency  to  variation,  that  is,  to  the  production  of  features 
differing  from  those  found  in  the  parents.  These,  supposedly  different  and  antagonistic 
tendencies  are  for  the  most  part  simply  different  manifestations  of  the  same  general  law  of 
heredity,  though  there  is  no  doubt  that  many  variations  in  the  way  of  special  development  due 
to  especially  favorable  conditions  are  at  least  in  part  transmitted  to  offspring. 

c* 

Let  us  see  how  variations,  not  due  to  external  conditions,  arise  : 

All  that  the  fowl  is  as  it  begins  life  as  a  chick  it  is  by  inheritance.  In  every  part,  feature, 
characteristic,  quality,  and  possibility  it  is  like  some  ancestor.  We  found  in  studying  the  ques- 
tion of  inbreeding  that  the  fowl  inherited  an  appreciable  part  of  its  qualities  from  some  thirty 
nearest  ancestors,  and  that  the  chances  of  a  characteristic  not  found  in  any  of  these  being  pro- 
duced were  very  remote.  Still  there  is  a  chance  that  a  feature  long  absent  in  a  stock,  though 
common  in  its  remoter  ancestors,  may  reappear  in  some  of  them  at  any  time;  and  I  have  heard 
of  a  few  instances  in  which  it  appeared  that  a  characteristic  of  some  very  remote  ancestor  had 
reappeared  in  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  stock  produced  in  a  season.  This  reappearance  of 
features  supposed  tafrave  been  completely  eliminated  is  what  is  called  reversion.  It  is  rare  in 
stock  that  is  carefully  bred  and  new  blood  introduced  with  caution,  but  is  quite  common 
when  birds  of  similar  type  but  very  different  breeding  are  mated,  or  when  radically  different 
types  of  fowls  are  crossed.  The  beginner  who  in  his  eagerness  to  avoid  inbreeding  buys  males 
and  females  from  different  breeders  and  puts  them  together  without  knowing  anything  of  the 
breeding  tendencies  of  either  line  of  stock,  is  very  apt  to  get  some  chicks  that  "take  back"  to 
distant  ancestors  in  which  qualities  not  now  wanted  were  conspicuous;  and  he  generally  con- 
cludes that  some  of  the  stock  he  got  was  not  "pure."  While  it  is  most  common  to  have  but  a 
siiii-'le  feature  reappear,  once  in  a  while  one  bird  or  a  few  birds  are  produced  like  a  remote 
ancestor  in  many  points. 

Now  suppose  tb*t  in  place  of  simple  reversion  to  a  single  ancestral  characteristic  which  one 
familiar  with  the  stock  or  with  the  history  of  the  production  of  a  variety  or  breed  will  easily 
recognize  as  such,  a  combination  of  features  of  two  different  ancestors  takes  place,  or  a  min- 
gling of  an  old  with  a  modern  feature.  In  such  a  case  it  may  be  possible  to  analyze  the  new- 
character  or  type,  but  it  may  be  impossible  to  do  so,  and  in  that  case  we  have  a  variation  which 


VARIATION  —  THE.    MLNDLL   LAW.  19 

we  cannot  explain.  It  is  perhaps  not  unnatural  to  suppose  that  what  \vecannotexplain  is  clue 
to  causes  we  cannot  appreciate  or  understand,  but  in  this  case  1  think  we  can  see  something  of 
the  general  method  of  variation  even  where  we  cannot  trace  every  variation  to  its  sources. 

We  can  control  variation  in  just  the  same  way,  and  to  much  the  same  degree  as  we  can 
heredity,  of  which  variation  is  one  manifestation.  That  is,  strictly  speaking,  we  cannot  control 
it  at  all,  but  relying  on  the  general  law —  on  average  results— we  generally  secure  likeness  in  the 
features  we  prize  most,  and  avoid  variations  except  in  conspicuous  characters.  Yet  In  many 
<-ases,  having  once  found  that  a  fowl,  or  the  fowls  of  a  certain  line  are  strongly  prepotent  in 
any  direction,  either  for  impressing  high  excellence  according  to  established  standards  or  for 
the  development  of  new  and  better  types  that  knowledge  may  be  made  of  great  practical  and 
commercial  value.  The  ability  to  discover  and  to  use  prepotent  fowls  and  types  that  are  better 
or  more  attractive  than  those  prevailing  is  one  of  fhe  best  personal  assets  a  breeder  of  fowls  can 
have.  It  depends  very  much  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  phenomena  and  the  principles  of  breed- 
ing. Most  of  our  successful  breeders  have  a  pretty  thorough  practical  understanding  of  the 
MI bject,  though  few  can  be  found  who  can  give  a  good  systematic  presentation  of  what  they 
know  about  breeding,  and  nearly  all  cling  to  some  ideas  about  breeding  which  I  have  little 
doubt  they  would  quickly  discard  if  once  they  put  all  their  knowledge  and  thoughts  about 
breeding  together  in  such  a  way  that  the  inconsistencies  in  them  would  be  clear. 

To  the  novice  in  breeding  the  first  use  of  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  phenomena  of 
heredity  should  be  to  give  him  a  more  correct  view  of  the  actual  status  of  so-called  pure  bred 
stock,  and  through  this  to  make  him  slower  to  condem,n  breeders  for  faults  in  stock  bought  of 
them.  When  a  novice  buys  breeding  stock  it  is  sometimes  subjected  to  several  conditions  not 
favorable  to  best  breeding  results.  The  change  of  climate  and  environment  may  or  may  not  be 
advantageous.  The  effects  of  such  changes  are  different  with  different  individual  fowls.  The 
same  change  may  be  beneficial  to  one,  indifferent  to  another,  detrimental  to  another;  and  these 
results  may  be  directly  reflected  in  their  progeny.  With  such  small  lots  of  fowls  as  are  usually 
purchased  for  breeding,  it  may  happen  that  all  are  affected  alike,  and  if  the  change  is  in  any 
degree  detrimental  the  breeding  results  may  be  disappointing.  The  tendency  in  such  cases  is 
to  go  back  to  obsolete  types  and  characters,  ami  quite  a  variety  of  these  may  reappear  at  the 
same  time.  Sometimes  these  results  occur  at  first,  but  after  the  fowls  become  accustomed  to 
the  change  they  breed  right.  For  this  reason  it  is  best  not  to  condemn  good  fowls  on  the  first 
season's  breeding  under  new  conditions. 

Very  often  the  care  and  feeding  the  novice  gives  bis  breeding  stock  are  not  favorable  to  good 
breeding  condition  and  results.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that  manv  novices  practice  buying  from 
different  breeders  to  avoid  inbreeding,  and  mate  the  birds  without  any  knowledge  of  them,  and 
we  have  a  combination  of  causes  for  reversion  to  obsolete  types  and  characters,  and  it  is  not 
difficult  to  account  for  the  skepticism  with  which  after  a  season  or  two  breeding  this  way, 
many  a  novice  regards  the  statements  of  older  breeders  as  to  the  proportion  of  birds  of  good 
breeding  quality  produced  from  their  matings. 

The  Mendel  Law. 

For  several  years  past  breeders  of  live  stock  have  been  showing  more  and  more  interest  in 
some  experiments  made  years  ago  by  a  German  scientist  named  Mendel,  which  have  only 
recently  began  to  get  the  attention  they  deserved,  but  which  now  seem  in  a  fair  way  to  be  con- 
sidered of  more  importance  than  is  actually  warranted.  The  "Mendel  law"  is  very  glibly 
discussed  and  applied  by  not  a  few  people  who  have  not  grasped  the  meaning  of  that  law  at  all, 
and  are  equally  uninformed  about  many  of  the  cases  in  which  they  attempt  to  apply  it. 

Two  years  ago  I  gave  in  FARM-POULTRY  a  statement  of  Mendel's  law,  and  some  observa- 
tions on  its  application  to  poultry  breeding  and  practical  value  to  poultrymen.  The  number  in 
which  this  appeared  was  almost  immediately  out  of  print.  So  many  calls  for  the  article  have 
been  made  that  as  It  is  right  in  line  with  the  subject  of  this  lesson,  and  as  it  seems  advisable  to 
have  it  in  permanent  form,  I  reprint  here  that  part  of  the  article  relating  exclusively  to  the 
Mendel  law. 


20  LES5ON5   IN    POULTRY  KEEPING —  SECOND  5ERIE5. 

As  preliminary  to  a  correct  understanding  of  the  scope  of  the  investigations  of  Mendel,  and 
of  the  possible  application  of  bis  law  in  poultry  breeding,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  that 
the  greater  number  of  Mendel's  experiments  in  crossing  were  made  with  peas,  and  that  his* 
observations  were  In  most  cases  confined  either  to  noting  the  results  with  respect  to  reproduc- 
tion of  a  particular  character  from  a  union  of  specimens  differing  in  that  character.  Thus,  he 
would  cross  a  tall  and  a  low  variety  of  peas,  and  observe  and  classify  resulting  plants  accord- 
Ing  to  height.  He  would  cross  a  variety  having  the  seed  round  and  smooth  when  ripe  with  one 
having  wrinkled  seed,  and  note  the  character  of  the  seed  from  the  resulting  plants.  And  so  on 
through  a  variety  of  minor  differences.  In  a  few  cases  he  made  comparisons  for  two  pairs  of 
characters,  and  found  that  the  mathematical  proportion  discovered  for  the  single  pair  was  still 
maintained,  but  there  was  nothing  in  his  work  at  all  approaching  in  complexity  the  task  of  the 
poultry  breeder  who  might  undertake  to  make  au  application  of  Mendel's  law  to  such  number 
and  variety  of  characters  as  we  have  in  fowls. 

Anything  like  a  general  application  of  Mendel's  law  to  the  phenomena  of  poultry  breeding  is 
at  present  out  of  the  question.  Indeed,  though  a  mathematician  might  find  mathematical 
expression  for  the  application  of  the  law  to  many  varying  characters,  it  would  be  practically 
impossible  to  separate  the  offspring  of  a  mating  made  with  such  an  end  in  view,  and  to  identify 
the  fowls  equivalent  to  the  factors  in  the  mathematical  statement.  For  the  present  —  and  per- 
haps for  all  time  —  poultrymen  must  work  with  Mendel's  law  as  he  worked  with  it,  applying  it 
to  but  one  or  two  characters  at  a  time. 

However  it  may  seem  to  those  not  versed  in  the  histories  of  breeds  and  varieties,  to  experi- 
enced breeders  this  limitation  of  the  application  of  the  law  will  not  appear  to  diminish  its 
practical  value.  The  experienced  breeder  knows  — none  better  — how  all  but  impossible  it  is 
to  make  rapid  advance  in  the  development  of  more  than  one  important  feature  at  a  time.  What 
the  Mendel  law  gives  promise  of  being  able  to  do  for  the  breeder  of  poultry  is  to  help  him  to 
make  more  rapid  and  more  certain  progress  point  by  point.  As  Bateson  puts  it,  Mendel's 
"  work  relates  to  the  course  of  heredity  in  cases  where  definite  varieties  differing  from  each. 
other  in  some  one  definite  character  are  crossed  together.  *  *  *  It  was  found  that  in 
each  case  the  offspring  of  the  cross  exhibited  the  character  of  one  of  the  parents  in  almost 
undimlnished  intensity,  and  intermediates  which  could  not  be  at  once  referred  to  one  or  other 
of  the  parental  forms  were  not  found. 

"  In  the  case  of  each  pair  of  characters  there  is  thus  one  which  in  the  first  "cross  prevail*  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  other.  This  prevailing  character  Mendel  calls  the  dominant  character,  the 
other  being  the  recessive  character. 

"  That  the  existence  of  such  '  dominant'  and  'recessive'  characters  is  a  frequent  phenome- 
non in  cross  breeding,  is  well  known  to  all  who  have  attended  to  these  subjects. 

"By  letting  the  crossbreds  fertilize  themselves  Mendel  next  raised  another  generation.  In 
this  generation  were  individuals  which  showed  the  dominant  character,  but  also  individuals 
which  presented  the  recessive  character.  Such  a  fact  also  was  known  in  a  good  many 
instances.  But  Mendel  discovered  that  in  this  generation  the  numerical  proportion  of  domi- 
nants to  recessives  is  on  an  average  of  cases  approximately  constant,  being  in  fact  as  three  to 
one.  With  very  considerable  regularity  these  numbers  were  approached  in  the  case  of  each  of 
bis  pairs  of  characters. 

"There  are  thus  in  the  first  generation  raised  from  the  crossbreds  seventy-five  per  cent 
dominants  and  twenty-five  per  cent  recessives. 

"These  plants  were  again  self-fertilized,  and  the  offspring  of  each  plant  separately  sown. 
It  next  appeared  that  the  offspring  of  the  recessives  remained  pure  recessive, and  in  subsequent 
generations  never  produced  the  dominant  again. 

"But  when  the  seeds  obtained  by  self-fertilizing  the  dominants  were  examined  and  sown  it 
was  found  that  the  dominants  were  not  all  alike,  but  consisted  of  two  classes:  (1)  those  which 
gave  rise  to  pure  dominants;  and  (2)  others  which  gave  a  mixed  offspring,  composed  partly 
of  recessives,  partly  of  dominants.  Here  also  it  was  found  that  the  average  numerical  pro- 
portions were  constant,  those  with  pure  dominant  offspring  being  to  those  with  mixed  offspring 
as  one  to  two.  Hence  it  is  seen  that  the  seventy-five  per  cent  dominants  are  not  really  of 
.similar  constitution,  but  consist  of  twenty-five  which  are  pure  dominants,  and  fifty  which  are 


EXAMPLE.  OF  THE  MLNDE.L  LAW.  21 

really  crossbreds,  though  like  the  crossbreds  raised  by  crossing  the  two  original  yarieties,  they, 
only  exhibit  the  dominant  character. 

"  To  resume,  then,  it  was  found  that  by  self-fertilizing  the  original  crossbreds  the  same  pro- 
portion was  always  approached,  namely,  25  dominants,  50  crossbreds,  25  recessives.  *  *  * 

'•  Like  the  pure  recessives,  the  pure  dominants  are  thenceforth  pure,  and  only  give  rise  to 
dominants  in  all  succeeding  generations  studied. 

"  On  the  contrary,  the  50  crossbreds,  as  stated  above,  have  mixed  offspring.  But  these 
offspring,  again,  in  their  numerical  proportions,  follow  the  same  law,  namely,  that  there  are 
three  dominants  to  one  recessive.  The  recessives  are  pure  like  those  of  the  last  generation,  but 
the  dominants  can  by  further  self-fertilization  and  examination  or  cultivation  of  the  seeds  pro- 
duced, be  again  shown  to  be  made  up  of  pure  dominants  and  crossbreds  in  the  same  proportion 
of  one  dominant  to  two  crossbreds." 

In  illustrating  the  application  of  Mendel's  law,  Prof.  T.  H.  Morgan,  in  an  article  on  "  The 
Determination  of  Sex,"  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly,  for  Dec.,  1903,  makes  this  example: 
"  If  a  white  mouse  is  crossed  with  a  wild  gray  mouse  all  the  offspring  of  this  cross  will  be  gray 
like  the  wild  mouse.  The  gray  color  of  the  gray  mouse  is  said  to  be  dominant,  and  the  white 
color  (inherited  from  the  other  parent)  does  not  appear,  but  is  supposed  to  be  present  in  a  sort 
of  latent  condition.  It  is  said  to  be  recessive.  If  now  these  primary  hybrid  mice  are  inter- 
bred, some  of  their  young  will  be  white,  and  the  rest  gray  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  three. 
If  these  white  mice,  when  they  become  grown,  are  interbred,  their  offspring  will  always  be 
white  as  well  as  all  their  subsequent  descendants.  Some  of  the  gray  mice  will  also  breed  true, 
but  the  rest  that  are  gray  hybrids  will,  if  interbred,  give  rise  to  some  white  and  some  gray  In 
the  proportion  again  of  one  to  three." 

We  do  not  understand  that  in  this  illustration  Prof.  Morgan  assumes  to  state  facts  about  the 
crossing  of  white  and  gray  mice.  We  take  it  that  the  case  is  an  assumed  one,  except  perhaps 
as  to  the  statement  that  the  progeny  of  the  first  cross  would  be  all  gray. 

Xow  it  is  a  question  which  some  poultrymen  may  be  able  to  answer  partly  from  past 
experience  in  breeding,  whether  Mendel's  law  will  apply  to  any  characters  in  poultry,  and  if 
so,  to  how  many  and  to  what  characters.  Tba  writer  has  made  a  good  many  crosses,  observ- 
ing results  chiefly  with  reference  to  the  laying  and  table  qualities  of  the  stock  produced,  but  in 
connection  with  these  things  has  taken  casual  notice  of  other  points  which  might  be  supposed 
to  come  un-der  the  operation  of  the  Mendel  law  —  if  that  applies.  (Bateson  takes  pains  to 
emphasize  and  to  reiterate  that  the  law  does  not  appear  to  be  of  universal  application).  We 
have  observed  some  results,  for  instance,  with  regard  to  color  or  some  other  character  which 
suggested  that  Mendel's  law  might  apply  in  some  cases  —  matings  of  certain  individuals  —  and 
might  not  apply  in  similar  cases  in  which  different  individuals  were  used.  For  instance,  we 
once  made  a  cross  of  White  Leghorn  on  Light  Brahma  in  which  all  the  progeny  were  white, 
the  color  of  the  Leghorn  sire.  We  have  had  other  crosses  in  which  the  colors  of  the  females 
of  the  male's  line  were  approximately  reproduced  in  his  female  offspring,  while  the  male 
offspring  resembled  the  color  of  males  of  the  variety  of  their  dams.  Again  we  have  had  both 
males  and  females,  without  exception,  of  color  type  intermediate  between  the  variety  colors  of 
sire  and  dam,  and  also  intermediate  in  size,  in  shape,  in  size  of  comb,  in  size  of  tail,  etc. 

But  these  were  not  crosses  of  varieties.  They  were  crosses  of  breeds.  To  reproduce 
Mendel's  experiments  with  reference  to  color  of  fowls  we  must  take  two  varieties  differing  only 
In  color,  as,  say,  the  Black  and  the  White  Wyandotte,  Leghorn,  Hamburg,  Cochin,  Laugshan, 
or  Minorca.  While  we  cannot  at  present  refer  to  a  record  of  such  across,  our  impression  is 
that  cases  which  would  seem  to  confirm  the  Mendel  law  are  extremely  rare.  The  variety  of 
results  we  have  seen  in  color,  considered  in  connection  with  the  limited  range  of  Mendel's 
experiments,  suggests  that  though  he  simplified  his  statement  by  the  introduction  of  the  terms 
"  dominant "  and  "  recessive,"  the  introduction  of  those  new  terms  made  the  relations  of  his 
observations  to  certain  older  principles  obscure.  Bateson  calls  attention  to  the  use  of  the  terms 
"dominant"  and  "  recessive"  as  a  clever  avoidance  of  "the  complications  involved  by  the  use 
of  the  expression  *  prepotent,'  "  but  it  seems  to  us  that  by  ignoring  "  prepotence"  the  facts  are 
placed  on  a  false  basis,  for  it  is  not  possible  that  the  law  may  be  found  to  apply  to  the 
phenomena  of  prepotency  rather  than  to  heredity  in  general.  Bateson  approaches,  but  does 


22  LE550N5  IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

not  reach  this  conclusion  when  in  the  more  technical  discussion  ot  the  subject  to  which  he 
devotes  the  latter  half  of  the  paper  from  which  we  have  quoted,  he  mentions  a  number  of  cases 
which,  like  those  in  crossing  poultry  which  we  have  referred  to,  plainly  do  not  accord  with 
Mendel's  results,  and  follows  with  this  conclusion  :  "  Dominance,  as  we  have  seen,  is  merely  a 
phenomenon  incidental  to  specific  cases,  between  which  no  other  common  property  has  yet  been 
proved.  In  the  phenomena  of  blended  inheritance  we  clearly  have  no  dominance.  In  the  cases 
of  alternative  inheritance  studied  by  Gallon  and  Pearson  there  is  evidently  no  universal 
dominance." 

Now  if  the  principles  discovered  by  Mendel  are  not  of  wider  application  than  to  the  crossing 
of  such  definite  varieties  differing  in  one  or  a  few  definite  character.*,  they  would  be  of  little 
importance  to  poultrymen  generally,  for  very  few  poultrymen  are  practically  interested  in  the 
development  of  types  from  crosses  of  varieties.  The  making  of  new  breeds  and  varieties  of 
poultry  is  generally  accomplished  by  mingling  several  quite  distinct  breeds  often  differing  from 
each  other  in  nearly  all  sections.  Each  breed  or  variety  u>ed  is  used  for  a  definite  purpose— to 
introduce  some  special  character  pr  feature  of  its  own,  or  to  make  in  combination  with  another 
some  new  character  intermediate  between  the  two. 

It  has  long  been  a  common  saying  among  poultrymen  that  in  a  first  cross  we  get  a  certain 
uniformity,  but  that  in  breeding  together  the  progeny  of  this  first  cross  we  get  a  great  variety 
of  results.  Outside  of  the  few  breedmakers,  those  who  make  crosses  have  generally  given  up 
trying  to  get  uniformity  out  of  the  progeny  of  a  cross,  and  if  they  like  a  certain  cross  content 
themselves  with  renewing  it  as  often  as  necessary.  It  cannot  yet  be  said  that  the  Mendel  law 
suggests  general  rules  for,  or  plans  which  may  be  universally  applied  in  bringing  orderly 
development  out  of  the  seeming  confusion  produced  by  the  breeding  together  of  crossbred 
fowls.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  what  it  does  suggest  as  to  how  a  mating,  which  produces  a 
desired  character  as  a  dominant  character,  may  be  used  and  followed  up  to  best  advantage  is  at 
all  new  to  poultrymen.  It  does,  however,  suggest  the  introduction  of  a  new  method  in  breed- 
ing which  no  doubt  has  sometimes  been  used  accidentally,  but  which,  so  far  as  we  are  aware, 
no  breeder  has  ever  recognized  or  advised.  And  if  the  Mendelian  principles  are  demonstrated 
to  apply  to  the  phenomena  of  breeding  generally,  and  not  merely  to  the  crossing  of  distinct 
varieties,  their  influence  on  breeding  operations  through  the  introduction  of  this  new  method 
cannot  fail  to  be  of  great  practical  value. 

To  explain  what  we  mean  : — There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  good  reason  why  we  should  not 
consider  what  Mendel  called  "  dominant"  characters  as  prepotent  characters.  In  their  breed- 
ing operations  poultrymen  have  been  accustomed  to  attach  importance  only  to  those  individuals 
possessing  the  character  they  sought  to  fix,  and  haveiound  that  some  birds  will  reproduce  that 
character,  and  some  will  not.  By  continued  breeding  and  careful  selection  they  finally  elimi- 
nate all  the  specimens  that  will  not  reproduce  the  desired  character  acceptably,  but  in  any  case 
in  which  the  principles  discovered  by  Mendel  operate  the  breeder  who  works  for  positive 
results  begins  his  work  with,  say  three-fourths  of  all  the  stock  from  a  certain  mating  showing 
a  decided  character,  while  only  an  unknown  third  of  that  three-fourths  will  reproduce  the 
character  with  certainty.  On  the  other  hand  — if  the  principle  of  Mendel  applies  — all  of  the 
stock  which  has  this  character  different  will  reproduce, the  different  character  in  its  progeny. 

Certainty  in  results  is  secured  by  working  not  with  the  individuals  having  the  dominant 
character,  but  by  using  those  having  the  recessive  character. 

The  poultry  breeder  generally  discards  those  specimens  which  differ  in  any  desired  quality 
from  their  parents  -if  he  knows  them.  Sometimes  he  uses  a  "  chance"  bird  and  finds  him  a 
very  strong  breeder.  May  it  not  be  because  in  respect  to  a  certain  quality  or  qualities  he  is 
what  Mendel  calls  a  "  recessive?" 

And  is  it  not  worth  while  for  poultrymen  to  study  their  matings  in  the  light  of  Mendel's  dis- 
coveries and  see  whether  the  "  science  of  breeding"  cannot  be  made  more  accurate  and  satis- 
factory by  seeking  out  and  using  the  specimens  that  retain  a  desired  quality  when  most  of  their 
kin  in  the  same  generation  lose  it  rather  than  by  working,  especially  with  the  specimens  which 
come  from  the  mating  most  fruitful  in  producing  specimens  with  any  given  desired  char- 
acteristic? 


PRACTICAL  VALUE,  OF  THE.   MENDEL  LAW.  23 

To  illustrate  by  an  example  :— 

Suppose  a  breeder  of  fowls  of  a  five  toed  variety  secures  two  males  of  that  variety  having 
only  four  toes  ou  each  foot,  and  with  these  males  as  a  starting  point  proposes  to  change  his 
stock  from  five  toed  to  four  toed. 

Now  if  Mendel's  law  is  a  law  of  prepotency  he  might  get  opposite  results  from  the  matings 
of  these  two  males  with  one  hen  each.  He  might  have  the  progeny  of  male  No.  1  all  four  toed 
like  the  male,  and  the  progeny  of  male  No.  2  all  five  toed  like  the  female.  If  then  on  inbreed- 
ing individuals  from  each  mating  he  found  the  variations  as  to  toes  approximately  according  to 
Mendel's  results,  this  would  be  the  situation  :  From  the  progeny  of  male  No.  1  he  would  have 
seventy-five  per  cent  of  four  toed  chicks,  and  only  twenty-five  per  cent  of  five  toed  chicks. 
From  the  progeny  of  male  No.  2  he  would  have  seventy-five  per  cent  of  five  toed  chicks,  and 
only  twenty-five  per  cent  of  four  toed  chicks,  but,  —  the  four  toed  chicks  from  male  No.  2 
would  be  the  ones  of  most  service  to  him,  because  he  would  know  that  they  would  reproduce 
themselves  with  certainty,  while  only  an  unknown  in  every  three  of  the  four  toed  chicks  of  the 
progeny  of  male  No.  1  would  be  pure  bred  as  to  the  number  of  toes  required. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  if  it  could  be  established  that  the  Mendel  law  applied  to  some  things 
in  poultry  breeding,  a  breeder  acquainted  with  this  law  who  should  produce  from  a  mating,  or 
discover  that  a  chance  mating  had  produced  a  lot  of  chicks  divided  with  respect  to  any  par- 
ticular character,  as  the  offspring  of  Mendel's  crosses  were  divided,  might  reasonably  assume 
that  he  had  found  an  in?-tance  where  the  law  applied,  and  proceed  to  make  his  matings 
accordingly. 

We  can  see,  too,  how  the  discovery  that  this  principle  applied  In  any  particular  case  might  be 
of  great  importance  in  the  preservation  of  established  characters.  One  of  the  greatest  difficul- 
ties in  breeding  poultry  is  fo  hold  points  gained  while  making  changes  in  other  points.  The 
knowledge  that  certain  individuals,  or  the  entire  progeny  of  a  certain  mating,  or  line  of  mak- 
ings, was  especially  strong  in  capacity  to  withstand  change  as  to  any  particular  point,  would 
be  extremely  serviceable. 

Then,  too,  as  has  probably  already  occurred  to  many  readers,  where  Mendel's  law  applied  a 
breeder  might  find  his  best  course  in  working  for  some  special  point,  to  breed  first  for  its  con- 
trary or  opposite;  in  other  words,  to  try  to  make  it  a  "  recessive  "  character,  and  so  determine 
the  individuals  possessing  it  in  purity  perhaps  several  seasons  earlier  than  would  otherwise  be 
possible. 

It  is  too  soon  to  say  yet  just  where  and  how  Mendel's  law  applies,  but  it  is  certain  that  it 
'does  apply  in  some  cases,  and  altogether  probable  that  investigation  will  show  It  of  great  use  to 
poultry  breeders.  To  make  it  useful  to  themselves  poultrymen  must  familiarize  themselves 
somewhat  with  it  and  with  investigations  along  the  same  lines,  and  must  also  do  what  they  can 
in  the  way  of  making  observations  to  discover  whether  or  not  it  applies  with  respect  to  any 
particular  phenomena  of  breeding. 


24  LL55ON5  IN    POULTRY   KLLPING  —  SLCOND  SERIL5. 


LE5SON     III. 


flarket  Duck  Culture, 


Introductory. 

IN  this  lesson  we  consider  duck  culture  almost  exclusively  as  it  pertains  to  a  single  breeo  01 
ducks,  the  White  Pekin,  which  so  far  Mirpas>es  all  others  in  popularity,  that  market  duck 
culture  in  this  country  is  White  Pekin  duck  culture.  In  our  fowls  we  have  in  each  class 
a  number  of  varieties,  and  also  have  several  cla.-ses  which  are  either  adapted  to  the  same 
uses,  or  could  without  much  difficulty  be  made  so;  but  in  ducks  we  have  nothing  else  that 
would  take  the  place  of  th'e  Pekin. 

Anotoer  peculiarity  of  modern  market  duck  culture  is  that  it  is  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
production  of  •<  green  "  ducks,  that  is,  of  ducklings  to  be  marketed  at  ten  to  twelve  weeks  of 
stge.  At  that  age  the  ducklings  have  frames  almost  as  large  as  when  full  grown,  and  will  dress 
four  to  six  pounds  each,  five  pounds  being  about  the  average  weight.  Much  of  this  weight  is 
fat,  and  the  proportion  of  edible  meat  on  a  duckling  at  this  age  is  much  smaller  than  on  one  of 
the  same  weight  at  four  or  five  months  of  age,  but  the  profit  in  duck  culture  is  all  in  the  green 
<lucks,  and  the  duck  specialists  devote  themselves  to  it  exclusively.  The  older  ducks  which 
come  to  market  are  mostly  from  the  west  and  south,  grown  in  small  lots  on  farms,  generally 
under  conditions  which  do  not  fit  them  for  the  green  duck  trade. 

Pekin  ducks  are  much  easier  to  h-indle  in  large  numbers  and  in  limited  quarters  than  chick- 
ens. They  grow  so  much  faster  that  the  brooding  problem  is  greatly  simplified,  and  if  con- 
ditions are  at  all  favorable,  and  care  anywhere  near  right,  they  are  very  free  from  disease. 
The  common  ducks  do  not  grow  anything  like  as  fast  as  the  Pekins.  Some  of  the  other  pure 
bred  varieties  may  equal  the  Pekins  in  growth,  and  at  intervals  someone  interested  in  another 
variety  endeavors  to  start  a  boom  for  it,  but  so  far  the  results  have  not  been  flattering.  What 
temporary  enthusiasm  may  be  developed  does  not  extend  far,  and  soon  dies  out.  Since  the 
introduction  of  the  Pekin  duck  no  large  grower  has  taken  up  any  other  variety,  and,  I  believe, 
no  large  sin-cess  hits  ever  been>  made  with  any  other  duck. 

The  breeding  of  Pekin  ducks  for  show  and  sale  for  stock  purposes  receives  little  attention  at 
present.  In  the  early  days  of  their  popularity,  when  there  was  a  very  lively  boom  in  duck 
culture,  poultrymen  who  went  into  ducks  carried  on  the  duck  business  on  much  the  same  lines 
as  their  other  poultry  business.  Some  few  continue  to  do  so.  But  the  more  successful  growers 
of  ducks  for  market  generally  abandoned  the  other  branches  of  the  business,  finding  it  more 
.satisfactory  and  more  profitable  to  devote  all  their  time  to  market  ducks.  Those  who  continue 
to  advertise  and  sell  exhibition  and  breeding  stock  and  eggs  for  hatching  are  mostly  poultry- 
men  who  handle  other  fowls  also. 

For  those  who  succeed  in  it,  duck  growing  is  probably  the  most  profitable  line  of  poultry 
•culture,  but  the  field  is  more  limited  than  the  trade  in  eggs  or  in  broilers,  roasters,  or  fowls. 
For  this  there  are  several  reasons.  Duck  growing  on  a  large  scale  is  a  very  new  industry.  It 
was  not  until  the  Pekiu  duck  appeared  that  tame  ducks  began  in  this  country  to  be  considered 


LOCATION  FOR  DUCK  GROWING  — BUILDINGS  — FLNCE5. 


25 


especially  desirable  for  the  table.  The  native  duck  left  to  itself  frequented  streams  and  puddles 
that  were  ofteii  iilthy,  and  ate  food  which  imparted  strong  odors  and  tastes  to  both  its  flesh  and 
its  eggs.  Any  duck  left  to  itself  develops  the  same  habits,  but  the  grower  of  the  large  improved 
breeds  of  ducks  finds  it  worth  while  to  keep  them  up  and  see  that  they  are  cleanly  fed.  For 
the  meat  of  such  ducks  the  demand  constantly  increases,  though  the  demand  for  duck  meat 
will  always  be  much  less  than  for  Chicken,  because  duck  is  too  rich  for  a  great  many,  and  too 
expensive  for  many  more.  Thus  the  consumption  of  ducks  is  limited,  and  New  York  city  is 
probably  the  only  market  in  the 
country  which  can  use  all  the  green 
ducks  which  might  be  sent  it. 
Outside  of  large  cities  and  popular 
resorts  the  demand  for  ducks  is 
light.  A  pouitryman  who  could 
easily  dispose  at  good  prices  of 
several  thousand  chickens  will  find 
the  same  market  requiring  only  as 
many  hundreds  of  ducks. 

Hence  for  most  of  those  who  read 
this  lesson  the  question  must  be  of 
the  production  of  a  few  hundred 
ducks  as  a  part  of  their  undertak- 
ings  in  poultry,  and  it  is  on  this 
basis  that  we  will  treat  the  sub- 
ject,  making  only  occasional  or 
incidental  reference  to  the  methods 
of  the  large  growers.  Anyone 
wishing  to  start  the  business  in  a 
large  way  ought  to  learn  it  first  on 
a  large  duck  farm.  One  who  begins 
with  u  few  and  raises  not  more 
than  200  to  300  at  first  can  get  along 
very  well  by  applying  the  informa- 
tion here  given.  pekin  Duck 

Location  for  Duck  Growing. 

For  growing  the  young  ducks  for  market  no  water  except  for  drinking  purposes  is  needed. 
Tue  ducks  grow  faster  when  kept  from  the  water.  For  the  breeding  stock,  and  for  ducks 
grown  for  stock  purposes,  water  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  results  are  generally  more 
satisfactory  if  the  ducks  can  have  access  to  a  stream  or  to  the  margin  of  a  pond  or  lake.  Many 
duck  growers  who  have  such  a  location  build  the  houses  near  enough  to  the  stream  to  admit 
of  m:iking  yards  partly  iu  the  water.  When  the  stream  is  shallow  the  fences  may  run  right 
through  it.  When  it  is  so  deep  that  fences  can  be  used  only  near  the  bank  the  yards  may  run 
a  short  distance  into  the  water.  Contrary  to  the  common  idea,  ducks  neither  require  nor 
thrive  in  damp  quarters.  Though  they  like  to  frequent  streams  and  marshy  places,  they  need 
well  drained  ground  to  which  they  can  go  when  tired  of  the  water,  and  the  house  site  should 
be  a^s  dry  as  for  hens. 

Buildings    and     Fences. 

Houses  for  ducks  are  built  on  the  same  general  plans  as  ben  houses.  A  building  12  to  16  ft. 
wide,  about  6  ft.  high  at  the  sides,  and  8  or  9  ft.  in  the  middle,  is  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory 
style  when  many  pens  are, to  be  kept  in  one  house.  For  a  single  pen  almost  any  sort  of  out- 
building will  do,  anil  if  a  house  is  to  be  made  especially  for  the  ducks,  it  need  not  be  other  than 
of  the  cheapest  boards,  covered  with  roofing  material  or  shingles  to  keep  out  the  wet.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  the  house  should  be  warm,  but  it  must  be  dry. 

When  a  number  of  pens  are  kept  in  the  same  building,  it  is  more  convenient  to  have  a 
passage  along  the  rear  wall.  The  partitions  between  pens  and  along  the  passage  need  not  be 


26 


LESSONS  IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  5ER1LS. 


House  for  Breeding  Ducks. 

more  than  2  to  2£  ft.  high,  and  openings  through  them  are  necessary  only  when  the  feed  troughs 
are  placed  along  the  walk,  when  a  slatted  opening  in  the  partition  enables  the  ducks  to  get  at 
the  food  in  the  troughs.  When  this  arrangement  is  made  the  trough  occupies  about  half  the 
length  of  each  pen.  It  is  easy  to  step  over  these  low  partitions,  and  many  handle  litter  and 
manure  to  and  from  the  pens  over  the  partitions,  but  if  desired  a  part  of  the  partition  in  e;ich 
pen  may  be  made  movable,  to  admit  running  a  wheelbarrow  into  the  pens.  If  these  partition* 
are  of  boards  there  will  be  less  draft  through  a  long  house. 

'i  he  fences  between  the  yards  should  be  of  wire.  A  fence  two  feet  high  will  keep  the  ducks 
in.  Duck  growers  usually  make  temporary  fences,  driving  short  stakes  into  the  ground  and 
attaching  the  wire  fencing  to  these  with  staples,  using  only  two  or  three  at  each  stake,  and  not 
driving  them  in  tight.  The  fence  built  in  this  way  is  easily  taken  down  and  moved,  a  matter 
of  considerable  importance,  for  ducks  foul  the  ground  badly,  making  it  .necessary  to  turn  it 
over  and  plant  on  it  often,  and  this  can  be  much  better  done  with  the  fences  up  and  out  of  the 
way. 

Number    of    Ducks   in   a    Flock. 

As  drakes  are  not  combative  as  cocks  are,  flocks  large  enough  to  require  a  number  of  drakes 
are  kept.  The  usual  plan  is  to  have  twenty-five  or  thirty  ducks  in  a  flock.  For  this  number 
of  ducks  five  or  six  mules  are  needed,  (one  to  every  five  females),  during  the  early  part  of  the 
winter.  Toward  the  first  of  March  the  number  of  males  in  the  pen' may  be  reduced  to  one  to 
every  seven  ducks,  and  in  May  some  breeders  still  further  reduce  the  males,  leaving  only  about 
one  to  every  eight  or  ten  ducks.  A  drake  will  successfully  serve  more  ducks  when  the  flock 
has  a  water  run  than  when  only  drinking  water  is  provided.  All  water  fowls  copulate  more 
freely  in  water  than  on  the  ground. 

Ducks  kept  for  breeding  should  be  given  good  sized  yards.  They  will  do  fairly  well  in  close 
quarters,  but  have  not  the  strength  and  vitality  when  so  kept  that  they  have  if  given  room  to 
take  more  exercise.  A  duck  that  forages  about  much  is  quite  strong  on  its  legs,  while  one  that 
is  confined  to  a  small  yard  and  eats  only  at  the  trough  is  verv  weak  on  the  legs,  and  will  give 
out  after  quite  a  short  walk  or  run.  In  such  condition  duck;  may  Jay  well,  but  the  eggs  will 
not  hatch  as  well  nor  as  strong  ducklings  as  if  the  old  stock  had  more  strength. 

A  flock  of  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  ducks  may  be  kept  in  a  house  pen  containing  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  square  feet  of  floor  space.  A  little  more  room  will  do  no  harm,  especially  if 
the  ducks  are  very  large.  For  the  outside  yard  I  would  not  give  specific,  or  minimum  or 
maximum  areas.  Give  the  breeding  ducks  as  much  yard  room  as  you  can,  and  if  possible  let 


BEGINNING  WITH  5TOCK  OR  LGGS. 


27 


them  have  access  to  water.  A  single  flock  on  a  farm  may  be  given  the  run  of  a  small  field. 
Where  they  must  be  confined  make  the  smaller  yards  square  rather  than  of  parallelogram  formr 
and  make  them  as  large  as  your  land  will  permit.  A  quarter  of  an  acre  of  grassy  yard  makes  a 
nice  yard  for  a  flock  of  breeding  ducks  of  the  numbers  we  are  discussing,  but  If  you  have  the 
room  you  may  be  able  to  give  a  considerably  larger  yard  at  very  little  extra  expense  for  fencing. 

Beginning  With  Stock  or  Eggs. 

One  of  our  most  successful  duck  growers  and  most  judicious  advisers  of  new  poultrymen 
says  that  for  those  who  begin  in  the  fall  he  thinks  it  better  to  buy  breeding  stock,  but  tho>e 
who  begin  toward  spring  may  find  it  more  satisfactory  to  start  with  eggs.  From  one  considera- 
tion I  would  always  advise  the  beginner  to  buy  some  breeding  stock  though  not  beginning  until 
late  in  the  spring.  By  handling  only  a  few  breeding  ducks,  and  only  for  a  part  of  the  season, 
he  gets  some  knowledge  of  them  and  experience  which  is  of  value  to  him  when  his  young  ducks 
come  to  their  first  breeding  season.  His  chances  of  handling  them  properly  and  with  satisfac- 
tory results  are  very  much  better  if  he  has  had  some  experience  along  that  line  than  if  all  his 
knowledge  of  ducks  is  what  he  gained  while  growing  them.  It  may  not  be  advisable  to  buy 
breeding  ducks  enough  at  the  prices  which  must  be  paid  in  the  spring  to  hatch  a  large  lot  of 
ducklings,  but  I  certainly  think  it  will  pay  anyone  not  familiar  with  the  nature  and  habits  of 
ducks  to  buy  at  least  a  trio  of  them,  though  also  buying  eggs  to  hatch. 

What  Kind  of  Stock. 

In  buying  stock  ducks  buy  good  ones.  That  is,  ducks  that  are  good  for  market  purposes. 
They  should  1>e  of  good  size,  for  to  be  profitable  ducklings  must  make  pretty  nearly  five  pounds 
on  the  average  at  ten  weeks,  and  such  ducklings  cannot  be  produced  from  small  ducks.  W. 
R.  Curtiss  &  Co.,  who  for  years  have  bred  Pekin  ducks  for  all  purposes  very  successfully  gave 
the  following  statement  of  their  meihods  of  mating  in  FAUM-I'OULTRY  a  few  years  ago: — 

"  We  select  females  of  good  fair  size,  —we  like  to  have  them  weigh  at  maturity  eight  pounds 


Brooder  House  and  Runs  for  Ducklings. 


28  LE55ON5   IN   POULTRY   KLLPING  — SECOND  SLRILS. 

each— medium  long  in  body,  deep  at  keel,  with  flat  backs  and  short  necks;  we  also  see  that  they 
have  a  fbarp,  quick  eye,  and  carry  themselves  well  when  walking. 

"If  we  wish  to  produce  large  birds  we  use  rather  small,  active  drakes,  weighing,  say  six 
to  seven  pounds  each.  We  do  not  use  email  drakes  constantly  year  after  year,  for  that 
would  run  the  stock  out.  Our  favorite  mating  is  of  medium  sized  birds  of  both  sexes — the 
drakes  to  be  as  active  as  possible.  This  produces  good  fair  sized  stock,  what  we  are  after  for 
market. 

"  Another  mating  we  use  quite  frequently  Is,  drakes  weighing  eight  or  nine  pounds  with 
extra  large  ducks  weighing  ten  to  eleven  pounds  each.  This  mating  has  produced  for  us  extra 
large  ducks  of  both  sexes." 

Feeding    the  Breeding   Stock. 

Ducks  are  fed  practically  all  soft  food.  A  number  of  growers  have  at  different  times  tried 
giving  hard  grain  as  to  hens,  but  generally  the  result  has  been  to  curtail  the  production  of  eggs. 
Herewith  are  given  the  rations  for  breeding  stock  recommended  by  some  of  the  leading 
^rowers : 

Ration  I.  "  Equal  parts  of  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  and  low  grade  flour,  with  about  twelve  or 
fifteen  per  cent  of  animal  food.  One-fourth  of  this  food  should  be  composed  of 
Vegetables  cooked  —  say,  small  potatoes, turnips, etc.,  with  all  the  green  rye  and 
refuse  cabbage  they  will  eat.  Feed  this  mixture  mornings  and  evenings,  giving 
a  little  corn,  wheat, 'and  oats  at  noon.  Feed  all  the  birds  will  eat  up  clean  and  no 
more.'' — JAMES  KAXKIN. 

Ration  II.  "  Equal  parts  corn  meal  and  shorts  with  ten  per  cent  beef  scraps  added.  If 
green  food  is  not  available,  add  one-fifth  cooked  vegetables  to  the  mash.  Give 
raw  vegetables  at  noon  two  or  three  times  a  week."— WEBER  BROS. 

Ration  III.  "  One-fourth  corn  meal,  one-fourth  bran,  one-eighth  broken  crackers,  one-eighth 
gluten  meal,  one-eighth  low  grade  flour,  one-eighth  beef  scraps.  This  mixture 
makes  two-thirds  of  the  mash,  the  other  third  being  scalded  green  clover  cut 
fine,  and  boiled  potatoes  mashed.  The  grain  feed  is  mixed  dry  at  first,  and 
then  the  clover  and  potatoes  added,  and  the  whole  mixed  with  hot  water  and  fed 
warm.  Feed  all  they  will  eat  up  clean  with  a  relish.  Allow  no  food  to  stand 
before  them  at  feeding  times."  —  CURTISS  BROS. 

Ration  IV.    "Two  parts  bran,  one  part  Indian  meal,  two  parts  cut  clover  or  other  green 
food.    Ten  to  twelve  per  cent  of  the  whole  to   be  best  quality  of  beef  scraps." 
—  POLLARD.    . 
Ration    V.    "Two  parts  clover  heads,  boiled,  two  parts  corn  meal,  two  parts  middlings, 

two  parts  bran,  one  part  ground  bone." —  JVlcFETRiDGE. 

The  food  for  ducks  may  be  fed  either  cooked,  scalded,  or  simply  wet  with  warm  or  cold 
water,  but  it  is  advisable  to  use  the  same  method  continuously,  and  not  indifferently  and 
indiscriminately. 

It  is  of  greatest  importance  that  both  animal  food  and  green  food  be  liberally  supplied. 
Ducks  are  hearty  feeders,  and,  as  when  laying  a  duck  lays  almost  daily,  she  must  be  well  fed 
and  with  a  good  substantial  ration.  Water  for  drinking  must  be  constantly  accessible,  and  It 
should  be  near  the  feed  troughs,  lor  ducks  wash  their  food  down  with  water,  and  may  choke 
if  not  provided  with  it.  Grit  and  shell  should  be  constantly  accessible.  Ducks  can  be  started 
hiving  quite  readily  in  early  winter  by  feeding  meat  heavily  in  the  mash,  and  by  keeping  them 
confined  to  the  house  on  raw  and  stormy  days.  They  will  stay  outdoors  by  preference,  even,  in 
cold  stormy  weather,  but  may  not  begin  laying  if  allowed  to  follow  their  inclination  in  this. 

The  floors  of  the  pens  should  be  bedded  with  coarse  hay,  straw,  or  leaves.  Nest  boxes  are 
seldom  used.  The  duck  will  scoop  out  a  nest  for  herself  in  a  corner  or  at  the  side  of  the  pen, 
and  duck  growers  agree  that  eggs  are  less  likely  to  be  broken  when  the  ducks  are  left  to  them- 
selves in  nesting  than  if  nest  boxes  are  provided.  Ducks  lay  very  early  in  the  morning,  mostly 
before  daylight,  though  occasionally  a  duck  will  lay  as  late  as  eight  or  nine  o'clock  in  th-e  morn- 
ing. If  they  have  liberty  they  are  just  as  likely  to  drop  the  eggs  about  the  yards  as  to  leave 


HATCHING  AND  BROODING  DUCKLINGS.  29 

them  in  nests  in  the  houses.  If  they  have  access  to  water  they  will  oftener  drop  eggs  in  the 
water  where  they  are  lost.  For  this  reason  ducks  that  have  access  to  water  should  be  kept 
from  it  in  the  morning  until  the  eggs  for  the  day  have  been  laid. 

Hatching  the  Ducklings. 

Where  only  a  few  scores  to  several  hundred  ducks  are  hatched  hens  or  incubators  may  be 
used  as  mo>t  convenient.  For  larger  numbers  it  will  usually  be  found  more  satisfactory  to  use 
the  incubators  exclusively. 

When  the  eggs  are  hatched  under  bens  give  nine  to  eleven  eggs  to  a  medium  sized  hen.  The 
number  a  hen  can  cover  properly  depends  on  the  size  of  the  eggs,  and  also  on  the  season.  If 
eggs  are  very  large  it  may  be  better  not  to  give  an  ordinary  sized  hen  as  many  as  nine  early  in 
the  season.  After  the  weather  is  warm  a  hen  may  be  given  a  nest  full,  and  often  hatches  just 
as  well  when  there  are  more  eggs  than  she  can  fully  cover,  but  in  the  winter  and  early  spring  it 
is  better  to  limit  the  number  to  what  it  is  clear  a  hen  can  keep  warm  ail  the  time,  for  when 
there  are  too  many  eggs  in  the  nest  all  are  likely  to  be  chilled  in  turn  and  the  entire  lot  spoiled, 
when  with  a  few  less  eggs  in  the  nest  a  good  hatch  of  strong  ducklings  would  have  been  secured. 

When  duck  eggs  are  hatched  in  incubators  the  operation  of  the  machine  is  varied  in  some 
makes.  In  other  machines  a  special  pattern  is  made  for  duck  eggs.  The  poultry  keeper  who 
has  a  machine  adapted  to  both  kinds  of  eggs  can  learn  from  his  book  of  instructions  or  from 
the  manufacturer  or  agent  what  special  adjustments  of  it  to  make  for  duck  eggs.  In  buying 
one  can  ascertain  to  what  extent  a. machine  under  consideration  is  adapted  to  duck  hatching. 

The  period  of  incubation  for  duck  eggs  is  twenty-eight  days.  Sometimes  the  ducks  hatch 
earlier,  but  it  is  preferable  to  have  them  go  the  full  time.  Unlike  chickens/the  little  ducks  pick 
the  shells  quite  a  long  time  before  they  attempt  to  break  out,  usually  thirty-six  to  forty-eight 
hours.  One  inexperienced  in  duck  hatching  sometimes  becomes  alarmed  about  the  ducks  not 
coming  out  promptly  after  breaking  the  shells  and  undertakes  to  assist  them.  There  is  no  occa- 
sion for  this.  As  the  ducks  pick  the  shell  so  long  before  leaving  it  it  is  necessary  to  see  that  the 
membrane  does  not  have  a  chance  to  dry  and  adhere  to  the  duck  or  become  so  tough  as  to  inter- 
fere with  the  hatching.  In  running  an  incubator  the  ventilation  is  reduced  so  much  at  the  last 
that  the  air  in  the  egg  chamber  is  saturated  with  water  and  the  membranes  kept  moist.  In 
hatching  with  hens  make  sure  that  the  hens  are  perfectly  comfortable,  and  nests  and  hens  free 
from  lice.  Then  the  hens  will  not  be  likely  to  have  the  nest  for  long  at  a  time.  It  is  well  also 
to  keep  the  hens  confined  to  the  nest  as  closely  as  possible  after  the  eggs  are  pipped,  though  as 
so  long  a  time  may  elapse  between  the  pipping  of  the  first'  egg  and  the  exclusion  of  the  last 
duck  the  hen  should  have  at  least  one  opportunity  to  leave  the  nest  in  that  time.  The  best  way 
is  to  let  or  take  the  hen  off  just  about  the  time  the  first  duck  is  due  to  push  out  of  the  shell;  then 
keep  her  on  the  nest  until  the  hatch  is  over.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  period  of  incuba- 
tion is  a  full  week  longer  than  for  chickens,  and  that  this  week,  if  the  sitting  hen  is  not  in  good 
condition,  is  harder  on  her  than  all  the  rest. 

Brooding   Ducklings. 

When  only  a  very  few  ducks  are  hatched  atone  time,  say,  not  more  than  two  or  three  hens 
can  brood,  hens  may  be  satisfactory  mothers,  but  as  the  number  in  a  lot  approaches  the 
capacity  of  a  single  brooder,  it  will  be  found  much  the  more  satisfactory  way  to  use  a  brooder, 
or  as  many  brooders  as  are  required.  I  think  duck  growers  generally  prefer  to  use  the  pipe 
system  of  brooding  if  they  have  enough  ducklings  to  use  such  a  system.  The  brooder  house 
for  ducks  may  be  just  the  same  as  for  chickens. 

The  ducklings  are  not  taken  from  the  nest  or  machine  until  they  are  twenty-four  to  thirty-six 
hours  old.  If  they  are  to  be  brooded  by  hens  the  hens  should  be  confined  so  that  they  cannot 
roam  about  and  wear  out  the  little  ducklings.  After  the  weather  is  warm  the  ducklings  may 
be  allowed  considerable  liberty,  provided  they  are  not  disposed  to  wander  too  far,  in  whicb 
case  they  should  be  restrained.  Sometimes  little  ducklings  but  a  week  old,  if  free  to  do  so,  will 
stray  long  distances.  This  must  not  be  allowed  if  good  growth  is  desired.  It  is  a  very  simple 
matter  to  confine  the  ducklings  to  any  required  spot,  for  a  board  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide,  set 
on  edge  and  supported  by  pegs  driven  beside  it  will  keep  them  in  until  they  are  some  weeks 


30 


LL550NS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  5LRIL5. 


old.  This  is  easily  moved  as  often  as  desired.  For  a  more  permanent  fence  it  is  better  to  use 
wire  netting.  When  the  ducks  are  very  small  the  finest  mesh  may  be  required  to  keep  them 
in,  but  they  grow  within  a  few  days  to  such  :i  size  that  the  two  inch  mesh  will  answer.  Which 
to  use  must  depend  on  the  amount  used,  and  on  the  convenience  or  inconvenience  of  changing 
the  quarters  of  the  ducklings,  or  changing  fences. 

Temperature  of    Brooder. 

The  brooder  into  which  the  ducklings  first  go  should  be  at  a  temperature  of  about  90°  before 
the  ducklings  are  put  into  it.  The  heat  of  the  ducklings  will  raise  the  temperature  several 
degrees.  This  temperature,  approaching  95°,  is  about  what  the  ducklings  should  have  for  the 


<Pekin  Ducklings  Sx   Weeks  Old.     Boy  Six  Years  Old. 

first  day  or  two,  it  being  a  reduction  of  about  8°  from  the  temperature  of  the  incubator.  The 
temperature  should  be  gradually  reduced  until  at  the  end  of  a  week  it  is  80°  to  85°.  Duck- 
lings grown  in  the  winter  need  artificial  heat  until  ready  for  market.  For  those  hatched  in  the 
latter  part  of  winter,  and  in  the  spring,  the  period  of  brooding  is  shorter.  When  settled  warm 
weather  comes  the  ducklings  need  artificial  heat  only  for  two  or  three  weeks.  Ducklings  that 
are  five  or  six  weeks  old  about  April  1st  can  go  into  "cold"  brooder  houses  at  that  time.  These 
houses  are  tightly  built,  so  that  the  ducks  in  them  are  well  protected,  but  have  either  no  heat 
at  nil  or  merely  a  row  of  pipes  along  the  rear  wall,  perhaps  a  couple  of  feet  from  the  floor  to 
take  the  chill  off  the  house  should  the  weather  at  any  time  be  unusually  cold. 

Feeding  the    Ducklings. 

The  very  first  thing  the  novice  in  duck  culture  should  fix  in  his  mind  about  feeding  duck- 
lings is  that  the  duckling  must  have  "grit"  in  its  food  from  the  very  start.  I  am  not  pre- 
pared to  say  whether  it  would  be  possible  to  have  thrifty  ducklings  without  grit,  but  I  have 
tried  a  good  many  ways  of  preparing  their  food,  and  found  that  they  always  needed  some  grit 
in  the  beginning,  and  that  they  did  best  when  it  was  mixed  with  the  food.  Any  fine  grit  or 
«lean  coarse  sand  will  do,  and  not  a  great  deal  is  required.  When  mixing  a  pailful  of  mash 


FEEDING  RATIONS  FOR  DUCKLINGS. 


31 


for  ducklings,  I  would  throw  in  ;i  heaping  handful  of  fine  grit  or  coarse  sand.  Mixing  lesser 
amounts  would  use  grit  in  proportion.  Some  duck  growers  use  grit  in  food  regularly  for  both 
young  and  old  ducks;  others  only  put  itln  the  food  for  the  young  ducks  for  two  or  three  days. 
I  have  never  discovered  any  advantage  in  continuing  to  mix  sand  or  grit  with  the  mash  after 
tlie  first  few  d;iys,  unless  symptoms  of  indigestion  appeared,  when  the  use  of  these  aids  to 
digestion  for  a  few  times  seemed  decidedly  beneficial.  Grit  should  be  accessible  to  the  duck- 
ings at  all  times  that  they  may  take  it  if  they  need  it. 

As  for  chickens,  there  are  many  good  food  combinations  for  ducks;  perhaps  not  so  great  a 
variety,  for  they  are  fed  practically  all  soft  food.  Herewith  are  given  the  rations  used  and 
recommended  by  a  number-: 

Ration  VI.  "  Two  parts  wheat  bran,  one  part  meal,  with  a  handful  of  fine  gravel  or  sand 
thrown  in,  mixed  with  either  hot  or  cold  water,  or  with  skim  milk,  to  a  crumbly 
consistency.  I  frequently  break  raw  eggs  into  the  grain  in  the  proportion  of 
two  eggs  to  one  quart  of  the  dry  grain.  This  must  be  thoroughly  mixed  that 
it  may  not  be  pasty  or  sticky.  After  the  first  three  days  omit  the  sand  or 
gravel,  and  by  the  fifth  day  begin  to  feed  a  slight  proportion  of  beef  scrap, 
increasing  gradually  until  at  two  weeks  of  age  they  are  getting  five  per 
cent  beef  scrap.  Gradually  increase  the  animal  matter  until  at  five  weeks  of 
age  the  ducks  are  getting  fifteen  per  cent  of  it,  which  proportion  may  be  con- 
tinued until  killing  time."—  POLLARD. 

Ration  VII.  "  Equal  parts  corn  meal,  bran,  flour,  ground  graham  bread,  and  rolled  oats,  five 
per  cent  beef  scrap,  a  little  oyster  shells  and  grit,  and  a  little  finely  cut  green 
rye.  Moisten  with  cold  water.  The  ingredients  are  first  mixed  dry,  then 
water  thrown  on  and  mixing  continued  until  the  food  is  of  the  proper  consis- 
tency. Feed  this  five  times  daily  until  the  ducklings  are  three  weeks  old. 

"After  three  weeks    feed    two   parts    corn  meal,  one  part  bran,  one    part 

middlings,   ten  per  cent  of  this  amount  beef  scrap,  a  little  oyster  shell,  and 

finely  cut  green  stuff.     This  is  fed  until  the  ducks  are  six  to  seven  weeks  old, 

when  they    are  put  on  a  'fattening   ration'    composed   largely  of  corn  meal, 

»  just  flour  enough  being  added  to  hold  it  together  when  wet;  the  proportion  of 

beef  scrap  being  still  about  ten  per  cent." —  WEBER  BROS. 

Ration  VIII.  u  First  week — equal  parts  of  corn  meal,  middlings,  crackers,  or  stale  bread, 
and  green  stuff;  mix  in  a  small  handful  of  sand  to  each  quart  of  food.  Give 
occasionally  bread  soaked  with  milk  for  a  change. 

u  Second  week — four  parts  corn  meal,  two  parts  wheat  bran,  two  parts 
middlings,  one  part  beef  scrap,  sand;  mix  with  about  one-third  the  quantity 
of  green  stuff.  At  about  six  weeks  put  ducks  in  fattening  pens  and  feed  two- 
thirds  meal,  the  remainder  about  equal  parts  of  bran,  middlings,  and  greens; 
add  about  twelve  per  cent  of  the  whole  beef  scraps." — HALLOCK. 

Ration  IX.  "  First  four  days — four  parts  wheat  bran,  one  part  corn  meal,  one  part  low 
grade  flour,  five  per  cent  fine  grit.  Feed  four  times  a  day  what  they  will  eat  up 
clean. 

u  From  four  days  to  three  weeks  —  three  parts  wheat  bran,  one  part  corn 
meal,  one  par  —  low  grade  flour,  three  per  cent  fine  grit,  five  per  cent  fine  beef 
scrap,  soaked.  Finely  cut  green  clover,  rye,  or  cabbage.  Feed  four  times  a 
day. 

"  From  three  to  six  weeks  old  —  equal  parts  corn  meal,  wheat  hran,  and 
low  grade  flour,  ten  per  cent  beef  scrap,  three  per  cent  grit.  Feed  three  times 
a  day. 

"Eight  to  ten  weeks  old — one-half  corn  meal,  equal  parts  bran  and  low 
grade  flour,  ten  percent  beef  scrap,  three  per  cent  grit;  oyster  shells  and  less 
green  food.  Feed  three  times  a  day. 

"  The    above  ingredients    should    be    made    into    a    mash,  and    should   be 
crumbly,  not  pasty.    Proportions  by  measure,  not  by  weight."— RANKIN. 
Whichever  of  the  above  methods  of  feeding   the^reader  takes  up,  he  will  find  it  better  to 


32  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLE.PING-5E.COND  5LRILS 

follow  that  method  us  closely  as  he  can,  including  the  accessories  perhaps  not  insisted  upon  ID 
other  rations.  The  different  proportions  of  different  articles  used  by  different  experts,  prac- 
tically balance  each  other,  as  one  who  is  skilled  in  feeding  can  see. 

If  only  u  few  ducks  are  kept  on  a  plant  on  which  fowls  also  are  grown  it  is  not  necessary  to 
make  a  special  mixture  for  the  ducks.  The  mash  made  for  the  hens  will  answer  by  the  addition 
of  a  little  sand  or  grit,  when  required,  to  the  portion  needed  for  the  ducks.  When  the  duck- 
lings are  fed  this  way,  extra  green  food  should  be  provided. 

Importance  of  Water. 

Even  more  than  the  old  ducklings,  the  little  ducks  require  water  to  wash  down  their  food. 
Their  drinking  vessel  should  be  always  supplied.  They  wilj  drink  even  at  night.  For  a  small 
brood  of  ducks  with  a  hen  an  open  drinking  pan  or  saucer  may  be  used,  but  for  larger  lots 
drinking  fountains  into  which  the  ducklings  cannot  get  should  be  used,  for  with  their  pushing 
and  crowding  at  feeding  times  a  brooderful  of  ducklings  having  access  to  an  open  drinking  vessel 
get  themselves  and  each  other  very  wet,  and  sometimes  the  wet  ducklings  are  chilled  or  trodden 
down  by  the  stronger  ones.  Milk  may  be  used  for  mixing  the  food,  but  should  not  be  given  to 
drink,  because  the  ducks  will  become  smeared  with  the  milk,  which  drying  on  them  puts  them 
in  a  most  miserable  condition. 

Cleanliness. 

It  is  important  that  all  feeding  and  drinking  vessels  should  be  kept  clean.  The  duckling's 
voracious  habit  of  eating  makes  it  shovel  down  filth  with  its  food  if  there  is  filth  present,  and 
in  a  very  short  time  the  effects  of  sour  and  foul  food  and  drink  become  apparent.  The  floors  of 
the  pens  should  be  littered  with  hay- or  planer  shavings,  and  as  these  become  wet  and  soiled 
they  should  be  removed  and  fresh  litter  put  in.  The  yards,  when  small,  should  be  swept  or 
scraped,  say  once  a  week,  and  even  if  a  yard  is  large  enough  to  make  cleaning  of  the  entire 
space  unnecessary  as  often  as  this,  the  parts  of  it  most  frequented  by  the  ducks  will  need  fre- 
quent cleanings. 

Ducklings  Must  Be  Kept  Quiet. 

Ducks  are  timid  fowls,  and  the  Pekin  duck  is  probably  the  most  timid  of  domestic  ducks. 
Any  annoyance  or  disturbance  of  the  growing  ducklings  (or  of  the  breeding  stock)  is  therefore 
to  be  avoided.  Visitors  should  be  kept  from  the  duck  quarters  as  much  as  possible,  and  dogs 
or  other  animals  that  would  frighten  the  ducks  must  be  kept  off  the  premises.  Sometime* 
ducks  become  panic  stricken  at  night  and  ru>h  back  and  forth  in  the  house  or  yard,  wearing 
themselves  out,  losing  a  great  deal  of  weight,  and  checking  growth.  To  keep  them  quiet 
breeders  who  have  trouble  with  them  in  this  way  hang  large  lanterns  in  the  duck  houses. 

Marketing  Ducks. 

The  well  grown  and  well  fed  duckling  should  be  ready  for  market  at  ten  weeks  of  age.  Early 
in  the  season  some  growers  market  ducklings  at  nine  weeks  to  get  the  extreme  high  prices  for 
the  first  ducks;  but  as  soon  as  the  ducks  begin  to  go  to  market  in  fair  supply  it  is  better  to  hold 
them  until  at  their  best.  For  the  bulk  of  the  lot  this  should  be  at  ten  weeks.  Some  of  the 
inferior  ones  will  not  be  ready  for  a  week  or  two  more.  All  should  be  sold  by  twelve  weeks, 
for  after  that  the  duckling  begins  to  grow  its  adult  plumage,  loses  its  "baby  fat,"  and  loses 
weight,  and  will  not  be  fit  1o  kill  until  eighteen  to  twenty  weeks  old.  At  that  age  the  duck  is 
meatier  and  better  eatinsr,  and  is  far  morp  satisfactory  for  the  home  table,  but  will  not  bring  :is 
much  in  the  market  as  the  green  duck,  and  will  have  cost  nearly  twice  as  much. 

The  large  duck  growers,  from  the  time  their  first  ducks  are  ready  to  dress  until  the  close  of 
the  season,  have  pickers  constantly  at  work.  Their  product  goes  almost  wholly  to  wholesale 
de-ilprs  and  commission  houses.  The  grower  who  has  only  a  few  hundred  ducks,  and  has  a 
traoV  in  dressed  poultry,  should  have  no  trouble  in  disposing  of  that  number  of  ducks  at  good 
prices  to  his  trade.  • 


MANAGEMENT  OF  DUCKLINGS  FOR  STOCK  33 

Killing  and   Dressing. 

The  methods  of  killing,  dressing,  cooling,  and  packing  ducks  for  market  are  the  same  a? 
given  for  poultry  in  Lesson  XX.,  First  Series,  but  a  duck  is  much  harder  to  pick  by  any 
method  than  a  chicken.  It  is  a  slower  job  and  one  that  requires  patience. 

Growing  Ducks  for  Stock. 

The  ducks  that  are  to  be  reserved  for  stock  purposes  should  be  reserved  from  either  the  early 
spring  hatches  or  from  lots  hatched  not  later  than  May.  Good  ducks  often  come  from  later 
hatches,  but  systematic  selection  from  the  best  lots  is  the  only  way  to  keep  up  size  and  stamina. 
The  best  duckmen  select  what  they  need  of  the  finest  April  and  May  ducklings,  and  separating 
them  from  the  market  lot  at  the  age  when  fattening  begins,  continue  them  on  such  a  ration  as 
has  been  used  for  growing  them,  at  the  same  time  giving  them  more  room  with  access  to  grass 
and  water  range.  As  vhey  approach  maturity  the  proportion  of  meat  in  the  ration  is  reduced. 
Often  it  is  completely  eliminated  for  a  time;  because  if  continued  it  gets  the  ducks  to  laying 
earlier  than  is  desirable.  A  "maintenance  ration"  only  is  given  through  the  fall  unti.  the 
ducks  are  put  in  breeding  houses  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  when  rations  for  breeding  stock, 
as  given  earlier  in  this  lesson,  are  given  them.  It  is  not  desirable  that  the  ducks  should  lay 
much  before  December 


34 


LESSONS  IN   POULTRY  KEEPING— SECOND  SERIES. 


LESSON     IV. 


Goose  Culture. 


THIS  is  the  branch  of  poultry  culture  which  interests  the  least  number  of  people.  You 
may  travel  long  distances  in  many  directions,  and  see  very  few  geese.  Yet  it  is  a 
line  that  might  profitably  be  given  some  attention  by  practically  all  farmers  and  a 
great  many  others. 

I  do  not  mean  by  this  that  the  growing  of  geese  on  a  commercial  scale  could  be  carried  on 
profitably  very  much  more  generally  than  it  is.  No  doubt  interest  in  goose  culture  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  could  develop  considerably  before  an  over  supply  was  created,  but  those  to  whom 


THE.    BRLLDS    OF    GE.L5L.  35 

goose  growing  should  appeal  most  at  present  are  the  many  who  might  grow  a  few  geese  every 
year,  either  for  home  use  or  for  a  local  market,  almost  without  expense.  Almost  every  farm 
has  some  land  not  used  for  any  other  purpose,  and  not  productive,  that  might  be  devoted  to 
goose  growing.  On  almost  every  farm  a  flock  of  geese,  large  or  small,  according  to  accommo- 
dations, might  be  kept  on  pasture  with  other  stock. 

Geese  thrive  most  readily  and  are  least  trouble  to  handle,  and  grown  at  least  cost,  when  given 
good  pasture,  but  they  may  be  grown  like  ducks  in  close  quarters  if  green  food  is  liberally 
provided.  This  way  of  growing  them  is  not  recommended.  I  merely  mention  it  as  possible 
for  those  who  would  like  to  know  something  of  geese,  but  have  not  good  natural  facilities  for 
growing  them. 

Under  favorable  conditions  geese  are  the  easiest  of  all  domestic  fowls  to  handle.  "With  good 
pasture  provided  with  water  they  may  be  left  to  themselves  half  or  more  of  each  year.  They 
do  better,  generally,  if  provided  a  little  grain  food  to  supplement  what  they  get  by  foraging, 
but  it  is  not  regarded  necessary,  and  perhaps  the  majority  of  those  growing  geese  give  the  old 
stock  nothing  during  the  pasture  season,  and  feed  the  goslings  only  a  few  weeks. 

The    Breeds    of   Geese. 

Many  of  the  geese  found  in  this  country  are  the  common  gray,  gray  and  white,  or  white 
geese,  not  much  larger  than  a  large  duck,  and  in.  a  general  way  showing  the  same  inferiority  to 
the  improved  breeds  of  geese  that  common  fowls  of  all  kinds  do  to  the  well  bred. 
'  Of  pure  bred  domestic  geese  there  are  the  following  breeds:  Toulouse,  Embden,  African, 
and  China,  or  Chinese.  Of  the  last  named  breed  there  are  two  varieties:  Brown  and  White. 
•Canadian,  or  Wild  Geese,  are  also  kept  in  captivity,  and  bred  to  be  sold  as  decoys  to  hunters. 
In  some  sections  the  breeding  of  Wild  geese  for  this  purpose  is  carried  on  in  a  small  way  by 
many  persons,  and  considering  investment  and  attention  required  is  quite  profitable.  The 
young  geese  generally  bring  at  the  hunting  season  in  the  fall  $5  each. 

Besides  being  used  for  the  purpose  just  mentioned,  Wild  geese  in  captivity  are  crossed  with 
domestic  geese,  producing  a  goose  which  is  properly  a  hybrid,  and  sterile,  but  which  is  com- 
monly called  a  Mongrel  goose,  and  perhaps  oftenest  called  the  "  Rhode  Island  Mongrel  goose," 
most  of  them  coming  from  that  state.  If  the  reader  will  make  a  mental  note  of  the  way  in 
•which  the  word  "  mongrel"  is  used  in  connection  with  geese,  he  may  save  some  confusion  on 
the  subject.  The  mongrel,  or  common  fowl  of  the  barnyard,  is  an  indiscriminate  mixture  of 
blood  like  the  common  goose,  but  the  Mongrel  goose  is  a  half  blood  wild  goose. 

Of  the  breeds  of  domestic  geese  the  Toulouse  is  a  very  large  gray  goose;  the  Embden  a  very 
large  white  goose;  the  African  a  very  large  brown  goose,  the  "Standard"  weights  of  all  being 
the  same  for  adult  specimens,  viz.,  20  Ibs.  for  males  and  18  H>s.  for  females.  For  young  speci- 
mens the  weights  are:  Toulouse — gander,  18  Ibs. ;  goose,  15  Ibs.  Embden — gander,  18  Ibs. ; 
goose,  16  Ibs.  African  — gander,  16  Ibs.;  goose,  14  Ibs.  Why  these  variations  in  the  weights 
of  young  geese  should  be  made  I  do  not  know,  nor  do  I  think  they  can  be  given  a  reasonable 
explanation;  but  it  makes  little  difference  to  any  goose  growers  but  the  few  who  exhibit. 
Chinese  geese  are  much  smaller  than  the  others,  the  weights  being:  Adult  gander,  14  Ibs.; 
adult  goose,  12  Ibs. ;  young  gander,  10  Ibs. ;  young  goose,  8  Ibs. 

Of  these  varieties  the  Toulouse  and  Embden  are  quite  common,  flocks  of  them  being  found 
in  almost  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  others  are  more  rarely  seen,  though  Africans  are  quite 
popular  in  Rhode  Island,  and  occasional  flocks  or  specimens  of  the  Chinese  may  be  met  in  any 
part  of  the  country. 

Though  similar  in  size  these  breeds  of  geese  differ  in  qualities  and  characteristics.  I  can,  I 
think,  present  these  differences  in  no  better  way  than  by  quoting  the  opinions  of  two  of  the 
best  authorities  on  the  subject : 

Mr.  Samuel  Cushman.  in  an  article  written  for  FARM- POULTRY  some  years  ago,  said: — 
"  Toulouse  geese  are  very  large,  docile,  and  great  layers  for  so  large  a  breed  ;  but  they  are  slow- 
to  mate;  ganders  mate  with  fewest  geese  of  all,  and  their  very  early  eggs  are  rarely  fertile. 
They  grow  a  very  large  frame,  but  grow  slow,  and  do  not  get  plump  or  fatten  readily  until  late 
1n  the  fall.  Their  plumage  is  easily  plucked,  but  as  it  is  dark  their  skin  does  not  have  the 
attractive  appearance  of  that  of  the  white  goslings.  Therefore,  this  breed  is  not  just  suited  to 
the  production  of  early  goslings. 


36 


LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  — SECOND  SERIES. 


"  Embden  geese  are  large,  docile,  and  their  goslings  grow  plump  and  large  very  quickly; 
have  yellow  bills  and  legs,  and  the  most  desirable  white  plumage.  They  also  pick  easily.  They 
seem  almost  all  that  could  be  desired  of  any  pure  breed,  but  they  have  their  faults.  They  lay 
later  in  the  season  than  any  other  breed,  and  fewer  eggs.  The  ganders  are  also  backward  in 
mating,  and  many  infertile  eggs  are  produced.  The  goslings  that  are  secured  are  all  that  could 
be  desired,  but  they  are  few  in  number  and  appear  on  the  scene  rather  late. 

"  African  geese  are  as  large  as  the  Embden  and  Toulouse;  lay  more  eggs  than  the  Embden, 
and  nearly  as  many  as  the  Toulouse,  and  lay  them  nearly  as  early  as  the  Chinese  varieties. 
They  are  prompt  to  mate,  and  the  ganders  will  mate  with  more  geese,  and  their  early  eggs  will 
be  more  fertile  than  those  of  any  other  large  breed.  They  are  steady,  docile,  and  great  feederSr 


,         Toulouse    Geese. 

Goslings  grow  faster  up  to  the  time  they  should  be  marketed,  and  are  easily  fattened.  Many 
more  large  goslings  will  be  secured  early  than  from  the  other  varieties.  If  you  have  ten  females 
each  of  Africans,  Embdens,  and  Toulouse,  with  the  proper  number  of  ganders  on  your  place,, 
and  give  them  the  same  chance,  you  will  have  after  the  hatching  season  is  over  many  more 
African  goslings  than  either  Toulouse  or  Embden.  Probably  three  times  as  many  Africans 
will  be  secured  as  Embdens,  and  twice  as  many  as  Toulouse.  This  has  been  our  experience. 
Of  course  there  are  exceptions  to  all  rules.  African  goslings  are  more  salable  dressed  than 
anything  except  the  Embden,  and  as  they  get  in  ahead,  bring  as  much  or  more  per  pound. 
Their  drawback  is  their  dark  bill  and  dark  plumage." 

Of  the  Chinese  geese  Mr.  Cushman  expresses  this  opinion  :— "  They  are  small,  nervous,  and 
noisy  by  nature,  and  are  the  least  able  to  withstand  cold  or  heat.    They  are  timid  and  excitable, 


GETTING  A  START  WITH   GE.L5L.  37 

and  hard  to  fatten,  also  to  pick,  but  they  are  the  earliest  and  most  profitable  layers  and  pro- 
ducers of  all.  Their  pure  bred  goslings  are  the  least  favored  by  fatteners  and  marketmen  of  all 
varieties." 

Mr.  Geo.  H.  Pollard,  comparing  the  breeds  of  geese,  says: — "  There  has  been  considerable 
question  as  to  which  is  the  best  breed  for  general  purposes.  The  three  breeds  which  have  the 
strongest  following  are  the  Toulouse,  African,  and  Embden.  Each  of  these  has  its  special 
virtues.  The  Toulouse  is  the  largest  of  the  three,  and  produces  a  very  strong  and  quick  grow- 
ing gosling.  Owing  to  its  great  size,  however,  it  is  longer  in  reaching  maturity,  and  when  fully 
matured  1s  too  large  to  suit  the  best  trade  in  the  New  England  market.  The  female  produces  a 
lair  number  of  eggs,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  breed  is  easily  managed  and  is  profitable. 

"  The  African  is  a  smaller  bird,  is  darker  in  plumage,  and  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the 
hardest  to  dress  of  any  of  the  breeds.  The  female  is  the  best  layer  of  the  three  breeds  men- 
tioned. The  eggs  are  of  a  fair  size,  and  under  proper  treatment  are  generally  well  fertilized. 
The  young  are  strong  and  hardy,  and  grow  quickly  to  a  size  which  is  well  suited  to  the  market 
demand.  The  principal  objection  to  the  young  of  this  variety  comes  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  at  most  stages  liberally  covered  with  colored  pinfeathers  and  down,  which  serve  to  mar 
the  value  of  the  carcass  for  high  class  family  trade. 

"  The  Embden  unites  the  good  qualities  of  the  Toulouse  and  the  African,  while  it  Is  without 
their  failings.  The  mature  birds  are  a  beautiful  clear  white,  with  flesh  colored  bills  and  legs. 
They  are  of  medium  size  and  weight.  The  females  are  good  layers.  The  young  are  strong  and 
quick  growers,  and  being  without  dark  pinfeathers  and  down,  they  dress  clean  and  white  at 
any  age.  The  carcass  is  more  tempting  and  sells  more  quickly  to  fastidious  consumers.  The 
quality  of  the  flesh  is  about  the  same  in  all  three.  Probably  no  one  could  delect  any  difference 
in  either  tenderness  or  flavor.  The  Embden  or  Toulouse  are  more  tractable  and  easy  to  man- 
age than  the  African,  which  is  the  most  pugnacious  of  the  three  breeds." 

From  these  opinions,  which,  though  not  strictly  agreeing  are  not  radically  different,  the 
reader  may  judge  something  of  what  breed  will  be  most  satisfactory  to  him.  "Messrs.  Cushman 
and  Pollard  are,  of  course,  considering  the  three  breeds  as  producers  of  goslings  to  be  sold  at 
periods  of  high  prices  or  to  an  exacting  trade.  The  reader  who  wishes  to  produce  for  himself, 
or  for  a  local  market,  and  does  not  intend  to  go  into  geese  extensively,  may  find  faults  that 
were  serious  from  their  point  of  view  of  little  importance  from  his.  Mr.  Cushman  advocated 
very  strongly  the  use  of  crossbred  goslings  for  market.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that  the 
experiments  made  with  crosses  took  account  of  too  small  numbers,  to  give  force  to  the  general 
conclusions  drawn  from  them,  and  that  very  few  goose  growers  have  done  anything  system- 
atically in  this  line  except  those  engaged  in  the  production  of  the  "mongrel"  geese.  In  the 
goose  growing  sections  of  Rhode  Island  where  geese  are  bred  for  market  more  extensively  than 
anywhere  else  in  this  country,  the  geese  used  are  generally  grades  produced  by  various  mix- 
tures of  the  blood  of  the  three  improved  breeds  we  have  under  consideration  with  the  old  com- 
mon goose.  The  goslings  from  this  stock,  while  not  equal  to  the  best  of  the  pure  breeds  or 
their  direct  crosses,  grow  rapidly  to  a  good  size  and  seem  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  trade. 

Getting  a  Start  With  Geese. 

If  one  wishes  to  grow  more  than  a  few  goslings  year  after  year  the  best  plan  is  to  begin  with 
adult  birds  three  years  old  or  over.  Geese  do  not  come  to  full  maturity  until. about  three  years 
of  age,  and  rarely  give  at  all  satisfactory  results  until  two  years  old.  The  young  geese  will  lay 
and  some  of  the  eggs  may  hatch,  but  the  goslings  are  apt  to  be  weakly  and  not  thrifty. 

Good  stock  of  any  of  the  improved  breeds  usually  costs  f 3  to  $5  per  bird.  It  is  better  to 
purchase  some  months  in  advance  of  the  breeding  season,  as  the  geese  will  not  breed  well  if 
moved  just  prior  to  the  laying  period.  If  stock  has  not  been  purchased  early  it  is  usually 
better  either  to  let  the  matter  go  over  for  another  season,  or  to  buy  eggs.  In  any  case  one 
must  expect  it  to  take  several  seasons  to  get  a  flock  of  geese  established  in  new  quarters, 
and  breeding  satisfactorily,  for  goetl  breeders  of  mature  age  are  not  often  offered  for  sale,  and 
the  young  geese  require  two  years,  and  sometimes  more,  before  they  produce  well.  Once 
established,  however,  a  flock  of  breeding  geese  can  be  kept  unchanged  for  quite  a  long  period. 
The  females  are  said  to  be  profitable  up  to  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age,  and  males  to  a  little  more 
than  half  those  ages,  say,  six  or  seven  years. 


38 


LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SECOND  SLRIL5. 


From  one  to  four  females  are  mated  with  each  male.  Young  geese  are  disposed  to  pair. 
As  the  ganders  grow  older  they  will  usually  serve  more  mates,  but  they  do  not  copulate  indis- 
criminately as  fowls  and  ducks  do.  Each  gander  serves  only  his  own  mates,  and  an  unmated 
goose  in  a  flock  in  which  all  the  ganders*have  other  mates  may  be  entirely  neglected.  For  this 
reason  goose  growers  often  put  an  extra  gander  with  the  flock  to  pick  up  and  mate  with  any 
neglected  or  discarded  females.  Usually  when  a  gander  and  goose  have  mated  once  they  are 
faithful  to  each  other  as  ]OT\%  as  allowed  to  remain  together,  and  often  refuse  to  take  another 
mate  for  a  long  time  after  being  separated.  This  trait  makes  it  possible  once  the  geese  are 
mated  to  allow  as  many  families  as  desirable  to  run  in  one  flock,  even  though  they  be  of  differ- 
ent breeds. 

Houses  and    Fences. 

Geese  require  very  little  shelter,  and  the  heavier  breeds  are  restrained  by  almost  any  sort  of 
low  barrier.  They  do  not  seem  to  mind  severe  storms  in  the  least,  but  will  lie  down  on  the 
snow,  draw  their  feet  up  into  their  plumage,  and  seem  supremely  contented,  no  matter  how 


Flock    of   Breeding    Geese    in    'PonJ. 

cold  or  rough  the  weather  is.  I  have  some  this  winter  that  have  gone  into  a  small  shed  with 
a  cockerel  for  which  they  seemed  to  have  a  special  liking,  but  as  soon  as  the  cockerel  was  taken 
away  quit  going  under  cover  and  remained  out  in  severe  sleet  storms.  A  low  rough  shed  open 
to  the  south  will  provide  all  the  shelter  needed,  and  it  need  not  be  much  larger  than  will  give 
the  flock  standing  room  under  it.  My  own  experience  with  geese  has  been  limited  to  small 
numbers,  but  though  I  have  always  provided  shelter  for  them,  and  kept  the  floors  littered  the 
geese  have  made  so  little  use  of  these  comforts  that  continuing  them  seems  more  in  the  line  of 
satisfying  my  conscience  than  providing  for  their  needs.  Sometimes  they  have  to  be  confined 
at  night  for  protection,  but,  as  a  rule,  they  can  take  care  of  themselves. 

Care   of    Breeding   Qeese. 

Geese  breed  best  on  pasture  with  streams  or  ponds  accessible.  They  require  little  grain  if 
the  pasture  is  abundant.  If  pasture  is  short  it  may  be  supplemented  by  grain  and  vegetables. 
In  winter  they  should  be  fed  mostly  on  vegetable  food,  cut  clover,  alfalfa,  cabbage,  beets, 


CARE  OF  BRLLDING  GLLSL  —  HATCHING  GOSLINGS.  39 

turnips,  etc.,  with  oats  or  barley  and  bran.  Corn  is  generally  too  fattening,  and  most  breeders- 
are  very  sparing  in  feeding  it.  Herewith  are  given  the  rations  of  several  well  known  breeders- 
of  geese:—  « 

Ration  I.  "  Through  the  laying  and  breeding  season,  in  addition  to  grass,  they  should  be  fed 
twice  a  day  with  shorts  and  corn  meal,  equal  parts,  thoroughly  moistened  with 
cold  water,  but  not  too  wet  lest  it  produce  diarrhea;  add  ten  per  cent  of  beef 
scraps,  or  its  equivalent." —  RUDD. 

Ration  II.  "  Take  some  boxes  about  eight  inches  deep,  and  put  oats  or  barley  in  them.  Place 
these  in  the  pasture  away  from  other  fowls.  There  is  no  danger  of  overfeeding 
grain  if  the  geese  have  pasture.  Give  corn  only  in  coldest  weather  —  when  it  is 
storming,  or  there  is  so  much  snow  that  they  cannot  go  foraging." —  NEWMAN. 
Ration  III."  Torn  out  on  pasture  from  June  until  fall;  feed  no  grain  while  grass  is  available, 
then  feed  lightly  of  oats  and  whole  corn.  After  February  1st,  give  full  ration  :  A 
mixture  of  corn  meal,  shorts,  beef  scraps,  boiled  potatoes,  or  turnips  in  the  morn- 
ing; whole  grain  in  the  afternoon." — WILBUR. 

Geese  usually  begin  laying  late  in  the  winter,  or  in  the  early  spring.  Not  many  lay  while 
there  is  snow  on  the  ground.  When  the  goose  is  ready  to  lay  she  is  apt  to  seek  out  a  nest  for 
herself,  and  having  once  selected  a  place  is  impatient  of  any  interference  with  her  laying  habit. 
The  goose,  as  a  rule,  looks  for  a  somewhat  secluded  place,  and  as  a  pasture  often  furnishes- 
few  such  places,  keepers  make  a  practice  of  providing  nests  that  may  attract  the  geese.  Ai> 
empty  barrel  placed  on  its  side  with  a  little  earth  in  it  to  hold  it  steady  and  make  a  foundation 
for  the  nest,  then  a  little  straw  or  hay  added,  is  the  usual  nesting  place  furnished.  Often  the 
geese  will  ignore  these  and  make  their  own  nest  right  in  the  open. 

As  geese  lay  but  few  eggs  it  is  customary  to  take  them  away  as  laid  during  the  first  laying 
period,  and  give  them  to  hens  to  hatch,  or  place  them  in  an  incubator,  and  not  allow  the  geese 
to  incubate  until  they  have  laid  a  second  lot  of  eggs. 

Hatching  Goslings. 

The  hatching  of  goslings  by  natural  methods,  whether  with  hens  or  geese,  differs  little  from 
the  hatching  of  other  fowls.  The  points  of  difference  in  hatching  with  hens  are  those  which, 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  eggs  and  the  length  of  the  period  of  incubation.  The  eggs  of  the 
large  breeds  of  geese  are  very  large,  and  early  in  the  season  three  will  be  found  enough  for  a 
medium  sized  hen.  Later  when  the  atmosphere  and  ground  are  warmer  more  eggs  may  be 
given,  but  it  is  rarely  wise  to  give  more  than  five  large  goose  eggs  to  a  hen.  The  period  of 
incubation  being  thirty  days,  approximately  half  as  long  again  as  the  incubation  period  for 
hens'  eggs,  hens  that  are  not  in  good  condition  and  free  from  lice  are  likely  to  neglect  or  desert 
their  eggs.  Hence  besides  taking  special  care  to  use  hens  that  are  in  good  condition  and  to» 
guard  against  lice,  which  multiply  much  faster  on  a  hen  late  in  a  prolonged  period  of  incubation 
than  while  she  is  active  and  robust,  it  is  well  to  watch  the  hens  very  closely  after  the  third 
week  of  incubation,  and  remove  any  that  seem  to  be  losing  condition,  giving  their  eggs  to  fresher 
hens. 

When  geese  are  used  for  hatching  they  may  be  allowed  twelve  to  fifteen  eggs.  Usually  they 
must  l»e  set  where  they  have  been  laying.  Many  growers  simply  leave  the  eggs  of  the  second 
litter  in  the  nest. 

Goose  eggs  can  be  tested  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  day,  and  the  infertiles  removed.  Test- 
ing should  always  be  attended  to  with  the  early  hatches  and  under  hens.  With  eggs  set  under 
geese  late  in  the  season  it  is  not  so  essential,  for  the  eggs  usually  run  very  fertile  then,  and  a» 
the  incubating  goose  does  not  like  interference  it  is  as  well  to  let  her  alone. 

Artificial  Hatching  of  Goslings.— Artificial  methods  are  very  little  used  for  batching  goose 
eggs.  Only  a  few  operators  of  incubators  have  had  at  all  satisfactory  results  with  them.  One 
of  these,  Mr.  Samuel  Cushman,  gave  me  a  few  years  ago  the  following  points  on  the  artificial 
incubation  of  goose  eggs: — 

"  Goose  eggs  need  more  drying  out  than  hen  or  duck  eggs,  and  also  need  more  cooling.  When 
an  incubator  containing  goose  eggs  is  run  as  for  hens'  eggs  the  air  cells  are  too  small,  not  enough 
of  the  fluids  of  the  eggs  are  absorbed,  the  goslings  are  glued  up,  weakly,  and  cannot  get  out  of 


40 


LE55ON5  IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  5ERIES. 


Goslings    at    Pasture. 

their  shells.  Goslings  under  hens  are  also  much  slower  getting  out  than  those  under  geese. 
Sometimes  they  remain  for  a  whole  day  after  pipping  the  shell,  with  bill  protruding  through 
the  opening,  gaining  strength  before  making  a  final  effort.  When  in  such  a  state,  if  the  air  in 
the  egg  chamber  of  the  machine,  or  the  air  surrounding  the  nest  of  the  hen  is  not  moist,  the 
membranes  of  the  egg  will  adhere  to  the  gosling  so  that  it  cannot  get  out.  After  the  first  week, 
whether  under  hens  or  in  incubators,  they  need  moisture.  If  in  nests  they  should  be  sprinkled 
every  two  or  three  days  or  put  in  water  from  thirty  seconds  to  a  minute.  With  goose  eggs  in 
incubators,  especially  in  ordinary  hot  air  incubators,  it  is  very  important  to  soak  the  eggs  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  hatch.  They  may  be  soaked  every  two  or  three  days  after  the  fifteenth 
day,  or  daily  during  the  last  ten  days. 

"  The  temperature  required  for  the  incubation  of  goose  eggs  is  lower  than  for  hens'  eggs,  but 
the  machine  need  not  on  that  account  be  run  at  a  lower  temperature.  Required  conditions  are 
met  by  running  machine  at  usual  temperature,  and  cooling  eggs  more,  thus  giving  them  a  lower 
mean  temperature.  Toward  the  last  the  heat  will  naturally  run  up,  and  it  is  best  to  allow  it  to 
do  so.  Some  of  the  best  hatches  were  obtained  when  the  thermometer  registered  106  and  107°. 
To  furnish  the  required  moisture  while  the  eggs  are  hatching  pans  of  hot  water  are  put  for 
short  periods  beneath  the  trays.  Under  such  conditions  the  largest  percent  hatches  were 
obtained.  This  process,  however,  must  be  conducted  with  caution,  for  it  is  easy  to  overdo  it, 
and  then  the  dried  matter  within  the  shell  seems  to  dissolve  and  glue  over  the  gosling.  What 
is  wanted  at  the  period  of  exclusion  is  a  high  degree  of  heat  not  too  long  continued,  and  just 
moisture  enough  to  prevent  the  membrane  drying  and  sticking  while  the  goslings  are  working 
their  way  out. 

"The  cooling  in  the  incubators  should  begin  at  the  tenth  day.  It  need  not  at  first  be  very  care- 
fully done,  a  slight  cooling  sufficing;  but  as  the  animal  heat  in  the  fertile  eggs  increases  more 
care  must  be  taken,  and  after  the  eighteenth  day  cooling  and  moistening  should  be  very  care- 
fully attended  to  until  the  eggs  pip.  Moistening  the  eggs  cools  them  rapidly  by  evaporation  of 
the  water  on  the  shells,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  dipping  in  water  is  more  beneficial  in  cooling 
the  eggs  than  in  furnishing  the  required  moisture,  for  the  cooling  effect  is  always  pronounced, 
while  the  moisture  effect  of  a  single  application  of  water  is  imperceptible.  When  cooled  dry, 
the  cooling  toward  the  close  of  the  hatch  should  continue  until  temperature  has  been  reduced  to 
80  to  85°." 


FOOD  AND  CARL  OF  GO5LING5.  41 

After   the  Goslings   are  Hatched. 

Whatever  method  of  hatching  is  used,  the  goslings  should  be  kept  warm  and  quiet  after 
exclusion,  and  for  the  first  few  days.  Mr.  Cushman  thought  it  better  to  remove  goslings  at 
once  from  the  egg  chamber  and  place  in  brooder.  With  hens  it  is  well  to  remove  the  goslings 
as  batched  to  a  flannel  lined  basket  kept  in  a  warm  place,  until  the  hatch  is  completed,  when 
they  may  be  given  to  the  hens  that  are  to  br^od  them.  It  is  best  to  remove  the  hen  from 
the  nest,  and  give  her  a  box  large  enough  to  let  her  turn  about  and  give  the  goslings  a  chance 
to  get  from  under  her  and  move  about  a  bit,  yet  not  get  away  and  get  chilled.  With  a  goose 
mother  the  goslings  may  be  let  alone,  and  as  they  are  generally  much  stronger  when  hatched 
by  a  goose,  are  not  so  likely  to  suffer  from  slight  exposures. 

Except  for  the  precautions  to  be  taken  during  the  first  few  days,  the  care  of  growing 
goslings  is  as  simple  as  anything  can  be.  I  give  here  first  statements  as  to  care  and  feeuinj, 
from  several  of  our  best  authorities,  and  following  these  a  few  comments  from  my  own  more 
limited  experience,  and  from  observations  made  in  sections  where  the  growing  of  geese  is 
generally  carried  on. 

Food  and    Care   of   Goslings. 

Ration  I.  "  The  first  two  or  three  days  keep  them  in  a  warm  place  and  give  a  little  soaked 
bread  and  water.  In  nice  weather  turn  them  out  in  small  enclosures  which  can 
be  moved  every  day.  After  a  week  let  them  go.  The  first  four  or  five  weeks 
give  nothing  but  stale  bread  occasionally,  but  always  leave  them  at  liberty  to  get 
all  the  grass  or  clover  they  want.  Do  not  soak  the  bread,  as  they  do  not  like  It  so 
well.  After  five  weeks  give  a  mash  of  two-thirds  bran  and  one-third  corn  meal. 
To  fatten  —  after  six  weeks,  feed  one-half  bran,  one-half  corn  meal ;  do  not  feed  it 
sloppy.  Never  allow  goslings  to  go  to  the  water  until  fully  feathered,  and  then 
only  let  those  go  which  are  to  be  kept  for  breeders."— NEWMAN. 

Ration  II.  "Goslings  are  better  off  if  they  get  nothing  but  tender  grass  and  water  the  first  day 
they  are  out,  or  before  they  are  forty-eight  hours  old.  The  next  day  they  may  be 
fed  two  or  three  times,  but  very  lightly,  with  scalded  cracked  corn.  This  is  prob- 
ably as  good  food  as  can  be  given  from  then  on,  provided  they  have  at  all  times 
an  abundance  of  tender  grass  to  eat,  and  the  amount  of  cracked  corn  fed  is  such 
as  will  leave  them  always  hungry  for  grass.  An  exclusive  diet  of  grain  or  dough 
without  plenty  of  grass,  or  too  great  a  quantity,  even  with  grass,  will  spoil  them — 
cause  them  to  lose  the  use  of  their  legs,  and  die.  If  grain  is  fed  sparingly  while 
they  are  young,  grass  being  three-fourths  of  their  food,  few  will  be  lost.  To 
make  the  best  growth^they  should  have  succulent  green  food  before  them  while 
they  can  see  to  eat.  If  shut  in  for  a  short  time  morning  or  evening,  or  on  a 
stormy  day,  they  should  have  a  continual  supply  of  freshly  mown  rye, oats,  clover, 
or  corn  fodder.  Otherwise  they  will  fret  and  lose  much  weight.  When  the 
object  is  to  raise  show  birds  of  great  size  and  frame  at  maturity,  it  may  be  best  to 
feed  oat  meal,  gluten  feed,  and  bran  liberally,  as  well  as  corn  and  grass  or  clover; 
but  there  will  be  less  uniformity  under  this  feeding,  and  more  will  be  lost."— CUSH- 
MAN. 

Ration  III.  "  They  need  plenty  of  green  food;  and  soft  tender  grass,  rye,  or  other  growing 
grains  should  be  freely  fed.  A  good  green  run  is  really  one  of  the  necessary  aids 
to  the  proper  growth  of  young  goslings.  While  many  of  the  old  timers  disbelieve 
in  the  feeding  of  grain  to  young  birds,  we  strongly  urge  that  they  be  fed  regularly 
three  or  four  times  a  day,  as  much  as  they  will  eat  of  a  mixture  similar  to  that 
which  is  fed  to  the  young  ducks.  This,  in  addition  to  the  green  range  will  cause  a 
growth  that  will  astonish  the  natives,  and  yield  a  profit  to  the  producer.  The 
young,  as  well  as  the  old,  need  free  access  to  stores  of  grit  and  shell.  While  not  so 
timid  in  disposition  as  ducks,  they  should  be  kept  free  from  disturbance,  and  all 
possible  pains  taken  to  keep  them  contented  and  happy;  contentment  means 
growth,  and  growth  means  profit." — POLLARD. 


42  LESSONS  IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

My  own  experience  in  growing  goslings  favors  Mr.  Pollard's  methods  rather  than  the  others. 
Feeding  whole  or  cracked  grain  freely,  even  as  part  of  the  ration,  I  have  found  likely  to  put 
gosliugs  off  their  legs,  and  I  have  invariably  brought  them  right  up  again  by  going  promptly 
back  to  a  mash  feed  as  soon  as  signs  of  this  trouble  appeared.  If  grain  is  sparsely  scattered 
the  goslings  take  a  good  deal  without  injury,  and  after  they  are  well  grown  will  eat  a  good  deal 
of  hard  grain  and  grow  very  fat  on  it  without  showing  any  indications  of  weakness. 

In  visiting  the  Rhode  Island  growers  of  gees^e,  one  may  find  great  diversity  in  methods  of 
feeding  as  far  as  the  use  of  foods  supplementing  the  abundant  pasturage  given  is  concerned.  I 
have  seen  the  goslings  on  one  farm  fed  a  stiff  dough  largely  of  corn  meal,  those  on  the  next  a 
mixture  of  much  the  same  consistency,  but  carrying  less  meal  and  more  bran  ;  while  perhaps  at 
the  very  next  place  visited  the  food  would  be  more  of  the  consistency  usually  given  hogs  to 
drink;  yet  under  all  these  different  methods  of  feeding  the  results  appeared  to  be  equally  good, 
and  from  this  I  think  it  reasonable  to  conclude  that  with  good  pasture  the  kind  and  consistency 
of  grain  food  makes  little  difference. 

One  point  especially  necessary  to  observe  if  the  goslings  are  to  be  kept  healthy  Is  to  either 
give  pasture  large  enough  to  have  clean  grass  in  abundance,  or  move  the  geese  often.  A 
favorite  method  with  those  who  grow  them  in  large  numbers  is  to  divide  a  small  field  into 
three  or  four  sections,  and  pasture  one  section  at  a  time. 

flarketing   Geese. 

For  profit  geese  are  sold  at  ten  to  twelve  weeks  old,  at  which  ages  they  should  weigh  from 
8  or  9  to  12  or  13  Ibs.  If  pushed  right  along  they  should  be  ready  to  market  at  ten  weeks, 
and  at  their  best  weight  as  green  geese  at  that  age.  If  intended  for  home  consumption  they 
may  be  kept  longer,  and  as  most  people  want  them  to  eat  in  winter  it  may  be  as  well  in  grow- 
ing for  home  use  to  feed  sparingly  of  grain  foods  until  near  the  time  of  killing,  when  grain  may 
be  given  freely  to  fatten.  ..  f 

Methods  of  killing,  dressing,  etc.,  for  market  are  practically  the  same  as  for  ducks. 


TURKLY   GROWING  —  VARIETIES    OF    TURKLY5.  43 


LE5SON     V. 


Turkey    Growing. 

THE  turkey  is  the  one  common  domestic  fowl  that  seems  to  be  utterly  unadapted  to  con- 
finement. The  guinea  fowl  has  much  the  same  roving  disposition  and  fretfulnes* 
under  restrictions,  but  guinea  fowls  are  by  no  means  common.  Geese,  as  we  have 
seen,  are  much  easier  grown  when  given  freedom,  and  good  pasturage,  yet  they  may 
be  grown  without  much  difficulty  in  confinement.  Instances  of  turkeys  successfully  grown  in 
close  quarters  are  extremely  rare,  and  most  of  the  successful  growers  of  turkeys  give  them 
practically  unlimited  range. 

The  bulk  of  the  turkey  crop  of  this  country  comes  from  the  large  grain  growing  and  general 
farms  of  the  central  west  and  southwest.  There  is  a  very  limited  area  in  Rhode  Island  where 
most  of  the  farmers  grow  turkeys,  and  some  grow  a  good  many.  In  Vermont  a  good  many 
turkeys  are  grown.  The  other  New  England  states  produce  practically  none,  while  through 
the  Middle  states  the  turkey  product  is  light  and  scattering.  In  the  grain  growing  sections  of 
the  west  and  southwest,  turkeys,  thrfugh  not  as  generally  kept  as  chickens,  are  very  abundant, 
and  probably  more  than  nine-tenths  of  the  entire  turkey  product  marketed  comes  from  these 
sections. 

On  these  farms  a  flock  of  turkeys  will  forage  far  and  wide,  and  if  not  too  large,  will  pick  the 
greater  part  of  its  living  until  the  time  comes  to  fatten  in  the  fall.  Under  such  circumstances 
there  is  generally  a  good  profit  in  turkey  growing  unless  losses  are  very  heavy. 

The  matter  of  advising  turkey  culture  for  farmers  or  poultrymen  located  on  farms  where 
turkey  growing  is  not  common,  is  one  that  requires  to  be  handled  with  caution,  and  calls  for 
deliberate  consideration  on  the  part  of  those  most  interested.  In  some  sections  where  turkeys 
were  once  generally  grown  their  culture  has  been  abandoned  because  of  the  prevalence  of 
disease  among  them.  In  other  places,  wlrere  the  natural  conditions  seem  favorable  to  turkey 
growing  the  natural  enemies  of  the  turkey  are  too  numerous.  Again,  where  the  farms  are 
large  enough  in  area  they  may  be  of  such  proportions  that  it  is  impossible  to  allow  a  flock  of 
turkeys  liberty  without  their  being  somewhat  of  an  annoyance  to  neighbors. 

Varieties  of  Turkeys. 

Our  domestic  turkeys  are  all  supposed  to  be  descendants  of  the  wild  turkey  still  found  in  its 
wild  state  in  many  places  on  this  continent.  The  wild  turkeys  are  hunted  as  game;  are  often 
captured,  and  have  been  quite  extensively  crossed  with  the  domestic  races  to  restore  the  vigor 
of  worn  out  stocks.  In  appearance  the  wild  turkey  resembles  the  Bronze  turkey  more  closely 
than  any  other  tame  variety,  and  by  some  the  Bronze  turkey  is  regarded  as  simply  a  domesti- 
cated stock  of  the  native  wild  turkey,  modified  and  improved  as  is  usual  when  wild  stocks  of 
any  kind  are  given  the  more  favorable  conditions  for  development  which  are  found  under 
domestication  with  good  care  and  liberal  feeding. 

Bronze  Turkeys  are  the  largest,  hardiest,  and  by  far  the  most  popular  of  the  varieties.  An 
adult  cock  sometimes  weighs  over  50  Ibs.,  though  the  Standard  weights  are  much  lower,  i.  e., 


44 


LL550N5  IN    POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 


adult  cock  36  Ibs. ;  yearling  cock  33  Ibs. ;'  cockerel  25  II)?. ;  hen  20  Ibs. ;  pullet  16  Ibs.  The  Bronze 
turkey  is  more  popular  than  all  other  varieties  combined,  in  most  sections  where  turkey  culture 
is  extensively  carried  on. 

Wliite  Holland  Turkeys  are  second  to  the  Bronze  variety  in  popularity  in  many  sections. 
They  are  much  smaller,  the  Standard  weights  being,  cock  26  Ibs. ;  cockerel  16  Ibs. ;  hen  16  Ibs. ; 
pullet  10  Ibs.  Breeders  of  White  Holland  turkeys  claim  that  they  are  much  more  docile  and 
nave  less  of  the  roving  disposition  of  the  Bronze,  and  are  better  adapted  to  close  quarters  or  a 
narrow  range. 

Narragansett  Turkeys  are  often  mentioned  as  the  favorite  variety  with  Ehode  Island 
growers,  but  in  a  two  days  trip  through  the  best  turkey  growing  section  of  that  state  with  a 
friend  a  few  years  ago  we  found  very  few  of  them,  both  Bronze  and  White  Holland  seeming 
more  numerous.  We  did,  however,  see  a  few  very  fine  specimens  of  the  Narragansett.  They 
are  second  in  size,  the  Standard  weights  being,  cock  30  Ibs.;  cockerel  20  Ibs.;  hen  18  Ibs.;  pul- 
let 12  Ibs.  In  color  they  are  gray,  the  plumage  having  a  black  ground  with  each  feather  tipped 
with  a  gray  band  edged  with  black. 

The  other  three  varieties  of  the  turkey  are  Buff,  Slate,  and  Black.  All  are  quite  rare  in  this 
country,  and  good  colored 
specimens  of  the  Buff  and  Slate 
varieties  are  very  rare  indeed. 
The  weights  for  these  three 
varieties  are  the  same,  cock  27 
4bs.;  cockerel  18  Ibs.;  hen  18 
\b$. ;  pullet  12  Ibs. 

Accommodations    for 
Turkeys. 

The  turkey  Is  essentially  an 
out  door  fowl.  Like  the  goose, 
it  will  generally  by  preference 
remain  out  doors  in  all 
weathers,  though  that  a  part 
of  this  preference  is  due  to 
habit,  would  seem  apparent 
from  the  fact  that  in  continued 
very  severe  weather  when 
they  cannot  feed  out  doors, 
they  seem  to  appreciate  shelter 
and  a  comfortable  spot  to  feed 
in.  I  kept  a  few  turkeys  in  a 
room  in  my  stable  one  sea- 


Bronze     Turkeys. 


son,  letting  them  run  about  the  barnyard  and  dooryard,  but  while  the  old  birds  seemed  con- 
tented to  keep  within  bounds,  and  were  thrifty  and  bred  well,  they  had  to  be  driven  into  the 
shed  nearly  every  night,  and  the  young  ones,  after  two  weeks  old,  were  anywhere  and  every- 
where but  at  home. 

Turkey  growers  generally  provide  roosting  places  for  their  turkeys  out  doors  in  a  sheltered 
place  where  the  roosts  cun  be  high  enough  from  the  ground  to  protect  them  from  marauding 
animals.  The  sheltered  side  of  a  barn  or  other  outbuilding  is  a  favored  place  for  the  turkey 
roost.  Occasionally  a  high  open  shed  is  used. 

On  most  farms  where  turkeys  are  grown,  the  breeding  stock  is  either  not  yarded  at  all,  or 
yarded  only  during  the  breeding  season,  to  prevent  the  hens  straying  away  and  hiding  their 
nests.  The  hen  turkey  is  very  cunning  in  this  matter,  and  I  have  known  of  their  going  a  mile 
or  more  from  home  to  lay,  going  and  returning  daily,  and  taking  many  precautions  to  throw 
anyone  following  off  the  track. 

Some  turkey  growers  yard  their  turkeys  during  the  laying  season.  Some  yard  them  until 
after  the  eggs  have  been  laid  each  day,  giving  them  liberty  then,  and  of  course  seeing  that 


THE    BREEDING    STOCK.  45 

they  are  back  In  the  yard,  and  the  gates  closed,  at  nightfall.  When  turkeys  are  confined  only 
during  a  part  of  the  day,  a  yard  50  x  100  ft.  will  do  for  a  flock  of  twenty  hens  or  less.  The 
fence,  if  of  wire  netting,  need  not  be  over  5  ft.  high.  A  few  turkeys  might  be  kept  per- 
manently in  an  enclosure  no  larger  than  this,  but  when  that  is  done  higher  fences  are  necessary,, 
for  Immature  fowls  and  hens  that  are  not  laying  fly  much  more  freely  than  the  mature  hens  da 
during  the  laying  period. 

The    Breeding   Stock. 

For  breeding  turkeys  lor  market  extra  large  birds  are  not  desirable,  especially  in  the 
Bronze,  which  sometimes  attains  such  mammoth  proportions.  A  medium  sized  turkey,  plump 
in  body,  fine  in  bone,  and  active  and  vigorous,  makes  the  best  breeder.  For  breeding  exhi- 
bition stock  the  largest  birds  are  quite  generally  preferred,  size  being  of  great  importance 
in  the  show  room. 

Turkeys  mature  slowly.  The  males  do  not  reach  their  full  growth  until  three  years;  the 
females  not  until  two  years  of  age.  The  male  under  two  years  old  is  not  considered  desirable 
as  a  breeder,  and  the  male  three  years  old  should  be  at  hts  best,  and  good  for  service  for  five  or 
six  years. 

The  usual  proportion  of  males  to  females  is  one  to  ten  or  twelve,  but  sometimes  a  much 
larger  number  of  females  is  given.  A  single  impregnation  fertilizes  all  the  eggs  in  a'litter,. 
and  often  all  laid  during  an  entire  season. 

Turkey  hens  are  not  usually  prolific  layers.  Some  lay  only  a  few  eggs,  perhaps  not  more 
than  eight  or  ten  before  going  broody;  few  will  lay  more  than  twice  that  number  during 
a  single  period,  and  eighteen  or  twenty  eggs  per  hen  is  about  the  average  for  the  entire 
season,  though  an  occasional  hen  may  lay  fifty  or  sixty. 

The  hens  begin  laying  in  March  or  April.  If  they  are  yarded,  nests  should  be  distributed 
about  the  yard,  preferably  in  somewhat  secluded  places.  Sometimes  boxes  or  barrels  are  used  ;. 
sometimes  a  good  sized  coop  is  made.  One  grower  makes  his  coops  three  feet  square  on  the 
ground,  two  and  one-half  feet  high  in  front,  and  a  foot  and  a  hall,  high  in  the  back,  with, 
board  roof  and  a  good  sized  opening" in  front  for  the  hen  to  go  in  and  out.  The  hen  turkey 
is  sometimes  very  shy  about  nesting,  and  will  avoid  the  nests  provided  for  her.  To  accommo- 
date such  hens  the  breeder  sometimes  simply  puts  a  bunch  of  hay  or  straw  in  half  concealed 
places,  leaving  the  hen  to  fix  it  up  to  suit  herself.  Even  when  the  turkeys  are  given  full 
liberty  it  is  a  good  plan  to  place  nests  for  them  near  the  dwelling  house,  and  prevent  the- 
hens  wandering  off  until  they  have  chosen  one  of  these  nests  and  laid  in  it.  After  having  laid 
once  in  a  nest  the  turkey,  like  other  fowls,  generally  returns  to  it,  though  some  will  change  if 
the  eggs  are  taken  from  the  nest.  To  avoid  this,  and  still  keep  the  turkey  eggs  from  being 
chilled  or  broken,  some  put  a  few  hens'  eggs  in  the  nests,  and  leave  them  there  constantly,, 
the  turkey  eggs  being  removed  as  laid. 

One  of  the  most  successful  turkey  growers  of  my  acquaintance,  besides  putting  nests  near 
the  buildings  to  attract  the  turkeys,  uses  a  coop  as  shown  on  next  page  to  cover  and  protect  the 
nest  a  turkey  makes  for  herself  in  the  open,  and  when  the  turkey,  as  often  happens,  makes  her 
nest  in  an  exposed  place  where  the  surface  does  not  admit  of  protecting  in  this  way,  builds 
such  a  cover  over  it  as  is  adapted  to  the  location. 

Such  precautions  88  these  contribute  in  no  small  measure  to  the  success  of  the  turkey 
grower's  work,  a  point  which  we  will  have  to  take  up  again  and  again  before  the  end  of  this 
lesson. 

When  the  breeding  turkeys  have  full  liberty  on  such  a  range  as  a  farm  adapted  to  turkey 
culture  usually  affords,  they  will  get  the  most  of  their  living  by  foraging,  and  will  require  in 
addition  only  a  little  grain.  Many  growers  feed  corn  exclusively,  but  a  mixture  of  wheat, 
oats,  and  corn  is  generally  preferred.  Most  of  the  authorities  on  turkey  growing  condemn  the 
use  of  mashes.  I  cannot  say  from  personal  experience  just  how  far  their  views  arc  influenced 
by  the  effects  of  the  use  of  poor  mashes.  In  my  own  limited  experience  in  turkey  growing,  I 
found  both  old  stock  and  young  throve  well  on  exactly  the  same  mash  grain  ration  I  was  feed- 
ing to  hens  and  chickens. 


46 


LL55ON5  IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  —  5LCOND  SERIES. 


Turkey's   Nest    Protected   by    Coop. 

Whether  a  mash  is  used  or  not,  yarded  turkeys  must  be  fed  liberally,  and  with  a  good  variety 
of  food,  grains,  vegetable  food,  meat  and  bone;  shell,  grit,  and  water  must  be  furnished  in 
abundance. 

Hatching  the  Turkeys. 

In  the  rearing  of  turkeys  natural  methods  are  used  almost  exclusively,  and  as  the  hen  turkey 
}ays  so  few  eggs  it  is  customary  to  use  chicken  hens  to  hatch  and  brood  the  earliest  turkeys. 
The  general  opinion  is  that  the  turkeys  reared  with  hens  never  do  so  well  as  those  hatched  and 
reared  by  turkey  mothers.  One  writer  who  had  had  a  good  deal  of  experience  both  ways, 
said  of  the  relative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  chicken  and  turkey  hens  as  mothers:  — 
"  I  have  found  the  advantages  of  turkey  hens  as  mothers  as  follows:  —  They  are  more  quiet 
with  little  ones;  are  better  protectors  from  hawks  and  animals;  will  not  wean  their  turkeys 
so  soon  as  chicken  hens;  are  kinder  to  little  turkeys  other  than  their  own  broods;  are  better 
foragers;  will  take  their  little  ones  to  the  range  where  they  can  pick  insects,  grass  seeds,  etc. ; 
the  little  ones  are  not  subject  to  so  many  lice  as  when  running  with  a  chicken  hen.  The  main 
objection  to  turkey  hens  is,  they  are  troublesome  about  coming  to  the  accustomed  roosting 
place  with  the  brood  and  getting  them  sheltered  for  the  night. 

"Advantages  of  a  chicken  hen  are  that  the  little  turkeys  will  be  more  tame  as  a  rule  than 
when  mothered  by  a  turkey,  and  the  hen  always  takes  her  brood  to  the  coop  in  the  evening 
and  puts  them  to  roost,  but  as  the  hen  is  more  restless,  she  keeps  the  little  ones  on  the  move  the 
first  few  days,  when  they  ought  to  be  very  quiet.  -This  can  be  overcome  by  confining  her  to 
the  coop.  I  endeavor  to  set  eggs  under  some  chicken  hens  and  some  turkey  hens  at  the 
surne  time,  so  when  the  chicken  hen  weans  her  brood  they  will  take  up  with  the  turkey  hen 
and  her  brood  and  all  go  together." 

When  chicken  hens  are  used  to  hatch  turkey  eggs  the  nests  are  made  and  the  hens  during 
incubation  handled  just  the  same  as  for  chickens.  The  period  of  incubation  for  turkey  eggs  is 
twenty-eight  days,  is  occasionally  as  long  as  thirty  days,  and  the  same  precautions  suggested 
in  regard  to  the  selection  of  hens  to  hatch  goose  eggs  should  be  observed.  Nine  to  eleven 
turkey  eggs  are  enough  for  a  hen.  When  turkey  hens  are  used  for  hatching  they  may  if 
<iocile  be  set  wherever  the  keeper  wishes,  but  if  wild  must  be  set  on  the  nests  where  they 
have  laid.  A  turkey  hen  can  cover  fifteen  to  twenty  eggs. 


THE    CARL    OF    YOUNG    TURKLY5. 


47 


Turkey  eggs  are  almost  always  fertile,  and  the  only  test  usually  made  is  a  few  days 
(three  or  four)  prior  to  hatching,  when  if  the  eggs  are  put  in  warm  water,  those  with  live 
chicks  in  them  will  "  kick."  These  may  then  bo  returned  to  the  nest,  and  those  that  give  no 
motion  discarded. 

The  practice  when  the  eggs  are  hatching  varies  just  as  with  those  hatching  chickens.  Some 
advise  letting  the  nests  alone  until  all  eggs  are  hatched;  others  say,  take  the  little  poults  from 
the  nest  as  hatched  and  put  in  a  warm  place,  wrapping  them  in  flannel.  It  is  a  point  each 
keeper  must  determine  for  himself  in  accordance  with  the  disposition  of  the  hens  or  turkeys  he 
is  using,  and  also  in  accordance  with  his  own  experience.  One  person  will  examine  nests 
without  seeming  to  annoy  hens  in  the  least,  while  another  will  find  his  hens  resent  any 
interference.  This  is  due  to  differences  in  people,  probably  cannot  be  changed,  and  each  must 
act  as  his  experience  shows  will  give  him  best  results. 

The  Care  of  Young  Turkeys. 

No  food  need  be  given  the  young  turkeys  the  first  day,  but  the  mother  should  be  fed, 
If  the  nest  is  so  situated  that  a  small  pen  can  be  made  in  front  of  it,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  let 
the  brood  remain  there  quietly  for  some  days.  If  the  nest  is  not  suitably  located  for  this, 
the  brood  should  be  removed  to  a  coop  with  small  run  attached.  A  coop  with  a  board 
bottom,  is  preferred,  as  the  young  turkeys  are  very  susceptible  to  dampness,  and  a  floored 
coop  is  dryer. 

The  pen  for  a  brood  of  little  turkeys  should  be  made  of  boards  twelve  to  sixteen  inches 
wide,  set  on  edge,  and  enclosing  a  space  about  eight  feet  wide  one  way  by  twelve  to  sixteen 
feet  the  other.  The  little  turkeys  are  at  first  much  less  active  and  rugged  than  little  chickens, 
and  should  be  confined  to  this  pen  for  about  ten  days.  It  is  better  that,  if  possible,  this  pen 
should  be  on  grass  land,  for  little  turkeys,  like  goslings,  want  green  food  from  the  start.  If 
they  cannot  have  a  green  run  green  food  should  be  provided.  Grit  and  charcoal  rnu^t  also 
be  provided,  and  lice  must  be  kept  down  by  dusting  with  an  insecticide  the  same  as  with 
young  chickens. 
Most  authorities  insist  on  the  necessity  of  altogether  avoiding  dampness,  keeping  the  young 


Turkey's  Neat  in  Cleft  of  Rock,    with  Loose  Boards. 


48  LESSONS   IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  — SECOND  SERIES. 

poults  up  while  the  grass  is  wet;  but  some  of  the  most  successful  growers  I  have  known  let 
their  turkeys  range  freely  after  they  are  strong  enough,  and  say  they  observe  no  ill  effects  from 
such  wettings  as  the  chicks  get.  Indeed,  their  opinion  is  that  this  way  of  life  is  much  better 
than  the  coddling  methods. 

While  the  young  turkeys  are  confined  to  coops  the  ground  under  them  and  the  coop  itself 
should  be  kept  2lean.  With  the  ground  shifting  the  coop  is  all  that  is  necessary  if  there  is 
opportunity  to  do  that.  The  coop  must  be  kept  dry,  as  well  as  clean.  In  wet  weather  when 
the  floor  becomes  damp  it  should  be  cleaned  daily,  and  a  liberal  sprinkling  of  dry  earth,  or  fine 
dry  litter  be  applied. 

By  the  time  the  young  turkeys  are  two  weeks  old,  if  not  before,  the  pen  will  no  longer 
restrain  them.  Their  roving  instincts  become  plainly  manifest,  and  in  a  very  short  time 
after  they  begin  to  go  over  the  low  sides  of  the  pen  they  will  go  over  fences  four  or  five 
feet  high  with  equal  ease,  and  begin  to  make  quite  a  circuit  in  foraging.  Whether  with 
hen  or  turkey  mothers  they  require  a  good  deal  of  watching  at  this  age.  In  fact  while  on 
a  good  range  the  turkeys  pick  a  considerable  part  of  their  living,  and  need  be  little  expense 
for  food  until  fattening  time  arrives.  They  require  more  or  less  watching  throughout  the 
season,  and  an  essential  factor  in  successful  turkey  culture  is  to  have  someone  keep  an  eye  on 
the  flock  almost  constantly  to  see  that  they  do  not  wander  too  far,  are  not  overtaken  by 
violent  storms,  or  picked  off  one  by  one  by  their  natural  enemies. 

Feeding   Young   Turkeys. 

In  the  poultry  literature  of  a  decade  ago,  instructions  to  turkey  growers  make  much  of 
the  matter  of  the  correct  feeding  of  young  turkeys,  and  each  writer  was,  as  a  rule,  positive 
that  his  way  was  the  right  way,  and  the  only  right  way  to  start  young  turkeys.    This  is  a 
point  that   has  come  up  before  in  these  lessons  in  our  discussions  of  the   feeding  of  other 
kinds  of  fowls,  and  I  presume  the  reader  is  therefore  anticipating  the  statement  that  there 
are  numerous  good  ways  of  feeding.    A  few  of  these  are  presented  herewith,  some  dealing 
briefly  with  the  early  feeding  only  ;  others  giving  directions  for  feeding  throughout  the  season  : 
Ration  I.    For  Young  Turkeys. — "  After  about  thirty-six  hours  old,  or  after  the  hen  leaves 
her  nest,  we  feed  for  three  or  four  meals,  equal  parts  of  hard  boiled  eggs  and  stale 
bread.     After  that  mostly  stale  bread  moistened   with  milk.    For  two  or  three 
weeks  we  give  curdled   milk  to  drink.     After  two  weeks  we  mix  a  little  red  pep- 
per with  the  bread  twice  a  week."  —  CRANGLE. 

Ration  II.  For  Young  Turkeys.—"  Our  first  feed  is  bread  and  milk,  with  the  milk  so  pressed 
out  that  the  bread  will  crumble.  This  is  fed  for  the  first  two  weeks,  after  which 
the  feed  is  gradually  changed  to  milk  curd  and  meal,  one-half  part  each,  and  a 
little  cracked  corn  is  given  at  night."  —  CURTISS. 

Ration  III.  For  Young  Turkeys  on  Good  Range.  —  n  The  first  feed  I  give  is  milk 
curd,  with  onion  tops  and  tongue  or  pepper  grass,  cut  very  fine,  seasoned  with 
black  pepper.  I  give  this  morning,  noon,  and  night.  It  is  a  mistake  to  feed  very 
often,  or  too  much  while  they  are  young.  If  poults  are  fed  three  times  a  day 
from  the  time  they. are  hatched  until  they  are  grown,  they  are  fed  often  enough. 
Yet  they  must  have  something  to  pick  all  the  time,  hence  I  would  advise  that  they 
be  kept  in  a  grass  yard  where  the  grass  is  kept  low. 

"  As  they  grow  older  I  add  other  things  to  the  food.  Table  scraps  are  splendid 
for  them.  If  I*  have  infertile  incubator  eggs  I  boil  them  and  mix  with  the  other 
food,  but  never  use  fresh  eggs,  simply  because  I  do  not  consider  it  necessary.  I 
give  milk  instead  of  drinking  water  when  it  is  plentiful.  I  keep  grit  constantly 
before  them.  Wheat  is  one  of  the  finest  feeds  for  young  turkeys.  Cracked  corn  is 
splendid  when  they  are  older.  My  rule  has  been  to  mix  grains  of  wheat  in  the 
food  from  the  first,  so  that  when  they  are  old  enough  to  change  from  curd  to  grain 
it  will  not  be  so  hard  to  change  foods."—  Mrs.  MACKEY. 

Ration  IV.  For  Turkeys  from  Shell  to  Market.  —  "  I  feed  poults  every  two  hours  until 
about  ten  days  old,  giving  stale  light  bread  softened  in  sweet  milk,  (or  water), 


RATION5     FOR    FE.LDING    YOUNG    TURKEYS.  49 

squeezed  dry,  mixed  with  hard  boiled  eggs,  including  shells  finely  broken.  This 
food  is  alternated  with  bread  and  clabber  cheese,  oat  flake  and  egg,  or  cheese  sea- 
soned with  a  little  salt  and  pepper.  After  the  little  ones  are  about  a  week  old  I 
begin  mixing  a  little  whole  or  cracked  wheat,  Indian  corn,  Kaffir  corn,  or  millet 
with  the  cooked  food,  and  thus  they  learn  to  eat  grain.  Always  try  to  feed  no 
more  than  they  will  eat  up  clean  each  time.  When  they  are  about  a  week  old  I 
begin  to  drop  the  white  bread,  and  give  them  instead  what  I  call  a  brown  light 
bread  made  the  same  as  white  bread,  using  one-half  white  flour,  (a  cheap  grade 
will  do),  and  the  other  half  about  equal  parts  of  shorts  and  bran,  with  a  hand- 
ful or  two  of  corn  meal.  The  meal  makes  it  crumble  easily.  The  bread  should  be 
allowed  to  dry  for  a  day  or  two  before  feeding;  if  fed  fresh  it  may  choke  the 
poults.  I  gradually  drop  the  white  bread  and  eggs,  and  feed  instead  the  brown 
bread  and  cheese.  When  about  six  weeks  old  they  have  become  accustomed  to 
the  grain  food,  which,  >ince  they  were  three  weeks  old,  has  been  kept  by  them  in 
troughs  in  coops  so  constructed  that  the  little  turkeys  can  get  in  and  the  older 
fowls  are  kept  out.  By  the  time  the  poults  are  nine  or  ten  weeks  old  I  have 
dropped  the  soft  or  cooked  feed  to  once  or  twice  per  day.  By  September  the  older 
poults  are  dependent  upon  grain  food  and  range.  For  fattening  I  had  good  results 
with  a  mixture  of  grains  proportioned  as  follows:  Two  bushels  whole  corn,  two 
bu>l»els  cracked  corn,  one  bushel  oats,  one  bushel  Kaffir  corn." —  Mrs.  HAKGKAVE. 
Ration  V.  An  All  Corn  Ration.  —  "  Successful  Rhode  Island  growers,  as  a  rule,  feed 
their  turkeys  from  start  to  finish  on  northern  white  flint  corn,  which  they 
grow  themselves.  They  take  great  pains  to  feed  nothing  but  well  seasoned  old 
corn,  because  they  have  found  that  new  corn  causes  bowel  trouble.  Turkeys 
not  only  like  northern  flint  corn  best,  and  fatten  best  on  it,  but  it  .makes  their 
flesh  more  tender,  juicy,  and  delicious.  That  given  the  little  ones  is  coarsely 
ground,  and  mixed  with  sweet  or  sour  milk,  or  made  into  bread  that  is  moi>tened 
with  milk.  This  is  gradually  mixed  with  cracked  corn,  which,  when  they 
are  about  eight  weeks  oJd,  is  fed  clear  or  mixed  with  sour  milk.  In  the  fall 
whole  corn  is  given.  After  June  1st  those  at  full  liberty  are  usually  fed  but 
twice  daily.  They  are  hunted  up  and  fed  in  the  fields,  that  they  may  stay  away 
from  the  farmyard  and  out  buildings.  Many  give  the  turkeys  no  food  from  Au- 
gust 1st  until  cool  weather.  They  get  their  own  living  until  they  come  up  from 
the  fields  in  September  or  October.  Upon  the  approach  of  cold  weather  they 
come  to  the  house  to  be  fed,  and  thereafter  roam  but  little. 

44  To  fatten  them  for  Thanksgiving,  they  are  fed  in  November  all  the  whole 
corn  they  will  eat  three  times  per  day.  It  is  not  necessary  to  coop  them.  The 
full  feeding  causes  them  to  rest  and  sun  themselves.  Dough  is  not  much  used 
for  fattening  in  Rhode  Island.  One  grower  who  gives  it  every  morning,  and  whole 
corn  at  night,  mixes  condition  powder  with  the  dough,  and  finds  it  causes 
them  to  eat  more  and  gain  faster.  Some  raisers  give  a  little  new  corn  mixed 
with  the  old  at  this  time,  but  most  consider  it  e-ifer  to  feed  clear  old  corn.  It  is 
not  best  to  heavily  feed  turkeys  that  are  to  be  held  for  a  later  market,  or  those  to 
be  kept  over  for  breeding." —  CUSHMAN. 

Supplementing  these  rations  let  me  say  that  in  an  extended  trip  among  Rhode  Island 
turkey  growers,  I  found  it  the  general  opinion  of  the  more  successful  that  with  other  conditions 
favorable,  the  method  of  feeding  was  not  of  great  importance,  provided  the  young  turkeys  got 
enough  to  eat,  and  a  variety.  These  successful  turkey  growers  also  agreed  that  care  was 
of  first  importance,  and  one  woman  who  was  said  to  have  been  uniformly  successful  for  many 
years,  made  the  following  interesting  observation  on  the  subject  of  care  in  relation  to  feed- 
ing; she  said  that  the  only  difference  she  could  see  between  her  method  of  handling  turkeys 
and  that  of  various  nejghbors  who  were  less  successful,  was  that  she  made  it  a  rule  to  hunt 
the  turkeys  up  in  the  fields  on  wet  or  dull  days  when  they  did  not  forage  freely,  and  when 
insects  to  be  secured  by  foraging  were  far  less  numerous  than  on  bright  days,  while  most  of 
her  neighbors  fed  the  turkeys,  on  fine  days  when  food  was  more  abundant  and  more  easily 


50 


LLSSONS  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SLCOND  SLRIL5. 


obtained,  and  sat  indoors  and  left  the  turkeys  to  shift  for  themselves  when  the  weather  was  bad. 
When  left  to  themselves  with  opportunity  to  range  freely  turkeys  will  usually  leave  their 
roosting  place  in  the  morning  and  make  quite  a  wide  circuit  of  the  fields  and  meadows,  terminat- 
ing late  in  the  day  at  the  point  from  which  they  set  out.  I  well  remember  how  when  a  boy  I 
used  to  go  occasionally  to  the  farm  of  a  relative  who  reared  every  year  a  flock  of  100  to  J50 
turkeys.  There  were  several  boys  in  the  family,  all  then  quite  small,  whose  duty  it  was  to  take 
turns  in  guarding  and  herding  the  turkeys  to  prevent  their  scattering  and  stragglers  being  lost. 
It  did  not  require  constant  attention,  but  the  turkeys  were  rarely  left  alone  for  more  than  an 
hour  at  a  time  when  out  of  sight  of  the  dwelling.  With  this  constant  attention  the  losses  were 
very  small,  and  at  the  end  of  the  season  the  addition  to  the  family  income  resulting  from  the 
sale  of  the  turkeys  was  quite  a  substantial  amount. 

The  opportunity  for  someone  whose  time  is  not  required  for  other  work  to  give  this  inter- 
mittent but  regular  care  to  the  turkeys  is  almost  invariably  a  feature  of  successful  turkey  grow- 


Turfaey  Roost  in  Shelter  of  Barn. 

1ng.  Their  roving  habits  make  them  especially  open  to  attacks  of  their  enemies,  and  unless 
they  are  watched  quite  closely,  all  that  they  represent  may  be  lost  in  a  very  short  time.  For 
this  reason  it  is  generally  more  satisfactory  in  the  end  to  grow  a  flock  large  enough  to  make  the 
watching  worth  while,  than  to  grow  a  smaller  number  and  let  them  .take  their  chances. 

Turkeys  are  salable  throughout  the  year,  but  the  best  demand  and  best  prices  are  for 
"Thanksgiving  turkeys."  In  some  of  the  eastern  markets  there  has  grown  up  within  a  few 
}Cirs  a  demand  for"  turkey  broilers,"  that  is,  young  turkeys  weighing  three  or  four  pounds 
each.  These  are  wanted  during  the  summer  months,  and  the  prices  paid  for  them  are  good 
enough  to  make  many  growers  prefer  to  market  them  then  rather  than  take  the  risk  of  carry- 
ing them  until  fall.  In  eastern  localities  where  turkeys  have  been  long  grown  on  the  same 
$r round,  losses  from  disease  are  often  heavy,  and  the  most  troublesome  diseases  develop. after 
the  turkeys  are  H  third  to  a  half  grown.  The  grower  who  anticipates  trouble  may  sell  his 
young  turkeys  as  fast  as  fit  for  broilers,  but  those  who  expect  to  carry  them  through  with 
slight  loss  generally  prefer  to  hold  them  for  the  winter  market. 

The  turkey  grower  generally  sells  all  that  are  ready  at  Thanksgiving.    When  the  fall  has  been 


CATCHING  AND  KILLING  TURKLY5.  51 

1  avorable  for  fattening,  this  takes  most  of  the  early  turkeys.  Then  for  the  Christmas  market 
as  many  as  possible  of  the  later  turkeys  are  slaughtered,  and  what  are  left  are  sold  as  they 
become  fit. 

The  dressing  of  turkeys  requires  no  special  description.  The  methods  employed  are  the  same 
as  for  chickens,  ducks,  and  geese  —  dry  picking  being  advisable  for  all  stock  to  be  sold  in  an 
eastern  market.  It  is  in  catching  the  turkeys  to  kill  that  precautions  not  so  necessary  with 
other  fowls  must  be  taken  to  prevent  these  nervous,  shy,  and  heavy  birds  from  bruising 
themselves  and  so  damaging  the  appearance  of  the  dressed  carcass,  and  reducing  the  price. 
When  the  turkeys  have  been  accustomed  to  roosting  in  a  shed,  catching  them  properly  pre- 
sents' no  difficulty.  When  they  have  roosted  in  trees  or  on  poles  in  the  open  air,  catching 
them  requires  special  care.  The  method  has  been  described  as  follows: — 

"  The  usual  plan  is  to  get  the  birds  into  a  barn  or  carriage  shed,  and  shut  them  in.  In  order 
to  do  this,  they  are  fed  far  a  long  time  in  front  of,  or  just  within  the  place  where  they  are 
to  be  caught.  Later,  the  feed  is  placed  within  the  building,  and  they  become  so  familiar  with 
it  that  they  are  unsuspicious  when  within.  When  they  are  to  be  caught,  the  doors  of  the 
building  are  suddenly  closed;  or  a  covered  yard  of  wire  netting  is  built  in  front  of  the 
building  and  closed  when  all  are  in.  Usually  when  they  find  they  are  confined  they  become 
ir'ghteued,  and  fly  back  and  forth,  or  huddle  up  in  corners.  *  *  *  To  overcome  this 
drawback,  certain  raisers  have  improved  the  usual  makeshift  catching  place  by  building  a 
Idng,  low,  dark  pen  back  of  the  barn  or  shed.  This  pen  extends  alongside  of  the  building, 
and  is  at  right  angles  with  the  entrance  to  it,  and  at  the  extreme  end  is  about  two  feet  high. 
Up  to  the  time  of  their  being  caught,  the  end  is  left  open,  and  the  birds  frequently  find 
their  way  through  it.  When  they  are  to  be  caught,  only  what  the  pen  will  comfortably  take 
are  driven  in.  They  do  not  discover  that  the  end  is  closed  until  it  is  too  late  to  turn  back. 
The  turkeys  that  are  not  to  be  caught,  are  first  driven  away;  otherwise  they  may  be 
alarmed,  and  become  unmanageable.  No  turkey  that  is  thus  caught,  and  has  learned  the 
mysteries  of  the  trap  is  ever  allowed  to  escape,  or  its  suspicions  would  be  communicated 
to  the  others.  When  shut  in  this  pen  they  are  quiet,  and  when  a  man  goes  to  catch  them, 
there  is  no  struggle;  he  simply  reaches  out  and  takes  them  by  the  legs.  The  pen  is  too  dark 
and  narrow  for  them  to  fly,  and  too  low  for  them  to  crowd  one  upon  another." 


52  LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  -SECOND  SERIES. 


LESSON     VI. 


Possibilities  and  Probabilities  in  Poultry  Culture. 


IN  THIS  lesson  I  am  going  to  depart  a  little  from  the  usual  plan  of  the  lessons.    There 
are  several  reasons  for  doing  this.    First  of  all  —  the  subject  is  too  big  for  a  lesson  of 
the  usual  length.    Next,  I   think  it  can  be  presented  most  effectively  by  treating  it  in 
three  principal  divisions.    And,  finally,  I  think  that  the  points  it  makes  in  the  concluding 
division  will  be  much  more  generally  appreciated  if  illustrative  examples  are  used  much  more 
freely  than  has  been  found  practicable  in  the  lessons  in  general. 

So  we  take  the  subject  up  in  three  sections.  The  first  section  will  consist  of  a  reprint  of  a 
part  of  a  lecture  given  by  me  at  various  places  some  years  ago,  and  published  in  full  in  the 
issue  of  this  paper  for  August  15,  1902.  The  second  section  will  be  in  narrative  form,  and 
will  tell  of  the  poultry  experiences  of  a  large  number  of  persons — both  those  who  have  failed, 
and  those  who  have  succeeded  in  poultry  keeping.  The  third  section  will  give  in  systematic 
form  a  statement  of  conditions  and  circumstances  making  the  possibilities,  or  affecting  the 
probabilities  of  success  in  any  line  of  poultry  keeping. 

I  hope  to  be  able  in  this  way  so  to  present  the  subject  that  anyone  can  determine  for  him- 
self what  is  best  for  him  to  do,  and  what  lines  it  will  be  most  advantageous  for  him  to  follow. 

Why  the  Failures  in  Poultry  Keeping. 

It  is  commonly  asserted  that  over  ninety  per  cent  of  all  business  ventures  fail.  On  what 
authority  this  assertion  is  based  I  have  never  been  able  to  learn,  but  I  have  very  strong  doubt* 
of  its  accuracy.  It  is  also  commonly  believed  that  the  proportion  of  failures  to  successes  is 
very  much  larger  in  the  poultry  business  than  in  almost  any  other  line. 

If  this  is  so,  and  if  the  general  statement  in  regard  to  business  failures  is  correct,  the  per- 
centage of  successes  in  poultry  keeping  would  have  to  be  very  small  indeed. 

It  is  not  now,  and  perhaps  never  will  be,  possible  to  get  accurate  data  on  this  point,  but  we 
can  still  make  comparisons  which  will  have  some  value  in  indicating  the  relative  number  of 
failures  among  poultry  keepers.  Some  months  ago,  just  to  satisfy  my  own  curiosity,  I  took  a 
copy  of  a  poultry  paper  for  March,  1891  —  ten  years  ago  —  and  went  through  the  classified 
advertisements  in  it,  checking  the  names  of  advertisers  who,  to  my  knowledge,  were  still 
engaged  in  the  poultry  business,  and  including  with  these  the  names  of  a  few  who  had  died 
while  active  in  the  business.  Of  240  persons  advertising  stock  in  that  paper  of  ten  years 
ago,  I  found  that  50  —  more  than  twenty  per  cent  —  were  still  engaged  in  the  business.  As  I 
omitted  the  names  of  a  number  I  think  (but  do  not  positively  know)  are  still  in  the  business, 
and  as  it  is  probable  that  a  number  of  the  others  of  whom  I  know  nothing  at  all  are  still  in 
the  business,  perhaps  a  thorough  investigation  would  show  nearly  as  many  more  still  interested 
in  poultry  keeping.  So  that  that  method  of  getting  an  indication  of  the  proportion  of  failures 
would  indicate  that  they  were  not  more  than  sixty  to  sixty-five  per  cent. 


WHY  THE,  FAILURL5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING.  53 

But  with  the  best  showing  that  could  possibly  be  made  in  this  way,  it  would  still  remain  true 
that  a  majority  of  those  who  undertake  poultry  keeping — whether  for  profit  or  pleasure  — 
fail  to  realize  on  their  expectations;  and  as  we  can  only  judge  what  is  to  be  by  what  has 
been  —  making  due  allowance  for  general  progress  —  we  have  to  consider  it  as  improbable  that 
the  proportion  of  failures  to  successes  will  be  much  reduced  in  the  immediate  future. 

Then  putting  the  matter  in  its  most  favorable  aspect  we  have  to  say  that  more  than  half  of 
those  who  engage  in  poultry  keeping  will  make  a  failure  of  it.  In  other  words,  that  when  one 
undertakes  poultry  keeping  the  chances  are  against  his  success. 

If  every  prospective  poultry  keeper  could  be  made  to  appreciate  this  before  he  begins,  the 
proportion  of  failures  might  be  so  much  reduced  that  successes  would  preponderate;  but, 
unfortunately,  nearly  every  .beginner  thinks  himself ,  or  herself,  the  talented  and  favored  or 
exceptionally  industrious  persofc  who  is  sure  to  succeed,  and  therefore  neglects  to  take  the 
necessary  precautions  to  avoid  failures,  even  when  advised  of  them. 

With  very  rare  exceptions,  those  engaging  in  poultry  keeping  oif  any  considerable  scale 
begin  without  any  adequate  practical  knowledge  of  the  conditions,  requirements,  and  methods 
of  Che  business.  Sometimes  they  have  had  a  limited  experience  with  a  few  fowls;  but  quite  as 
often  they  have  had  no  actual  experience,  and  a  very  limited  and  superficial  information.  If 
they  happen  to  have  abundant  capital  to  carry  on  the  business  until  they  have  learned  in  the 
costly  school  of  their  own  experience  what  they  ought  to  have  known  before  investing  a 


Vie-a,  of  Grandoiew  Poultry  Yards,  Aurora,  N.  Y. 

dollar,  they  may  make  a  success  of  it  —  may  finally  make  the  business  pay  its  expenses,  and 
give  them  a  living  besides;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  original  investment,  and  also  of  the 
expenses  for  several  years,  may  have  to  be  charged  off  to  cost  of  acquiring  experience  —  that 
id,  cost  of  learning  the  business. 

But  the  most  serious  cases  are  those  of  people  with  limited  means  who  go  into  poultry  keep- 
ing expecting  it  to  yield  an  income  sufficient  to  meet  all  expenses  and  give  them  their  living 
almost  from  the  start.  These  people  engage  In  the  business  with  two  ideas  which  I  think  are 
either  separately  or  jointly  responsible  for  their  undertaking  it—  both  of  which  ideas  are  radi- 
cally wrong. 

The  first  of  these  ideas  is :— that  poultry  keeping  is  very  easy,  that  there  is  really  nothing  to 
learn  which  any  person  of  average  intelligence  cannot  acquire  at  once  and  almost  without  effort 
as  soon  as  ever  he  gives  his  attention  to  the  subject,  and  that  the  fowls  require  so  little  care  that 
their  owner  has  light  work  and  a  great  deal  of  leisure. 

The  second  idea  is  that  the  profits  of  the  business  are  very  large,  and  the  margin  of  profit  in 
each  of  the  branches  of  the  business  so  good  that  even  If  there  are  losses  due  to  Inexperience 
these  cannot  possibly  be  heavy  enough  to  make  the  business  run  behind. 

Novices  are  not  wholly  to  blame  for  these  errors  unless  they  persist  In  them  after  the  facts 
have  been  clearly  presented.  The  people  most  to  blame  are  the  interested  parties  who  circu- 
late such  ideas.  But,  as  far  as  my  observation  goes,  the  greater  number  of  persons  who  once 


54 


LLS5ON5   IN   POULTRY  KLLPING— SECOND  SERIES. 


Feeding,  Watering  and  Egg  Collecting  Cart  Used  on  a  Rhode  Island  Farm. 

become  deeply  interested  in  poultry,  and  decide  to  venture  into  it  will  take  bad  advice  in  prefer- 
ence to  good  every  time.  I  suppose  this  is  because  the  bad  advice  is  more  in  line  with  their 
hopes  and  wishes,  and  because  those  who  give  them  good  advice  will  admit  that  though  the 
chances  are  very  much  against  the  success  of  a  business  established  on  the  basis  they  propose,. 
there  is  still  a  chance  that  intelligent  application  and  bard  work  will  pull  them  through. 

The  daily  care  of  poultry  is  neither  as  easy  as  some  think  it,  nor  as  hard  as  some  others  make 
It.  It  is  easy  when  you  know  how,  and,  unless  you  happen  to  be  one  of  those  who  utterly  lack 
natural  aptitude  for  handling  live  stock,  you  find  it  neither  a  long  nor  a  difficult  task  to  know 
how.  But  whoever  without  previous  experience  undertakes  the  care  of  a  large  stock  of  poul- 
try, soon  finds  himself  In  the  predicament  of  every  man  who  undertakes  to  do  or  to  learn  too 
many  different  things  at  once. 

There  is  a  very  great  difference  between  doing  work  well  and  doing  it  profitably.  Permanent 
success  in  any  line  of  work  depends,  as  a  rule,  upon  doing  it  both  well  and  profitably.  The 
workman  must  combine  thoroughness  with  a  considerable  degree  of  speed,— he  must  have  skill 
and  facility.  Skill  and  facility  come  only  as  the  result  of  thorough  practice  so  long  continued 


Chickens  in  Com  Fields,  on  Fatm  of  Knapp  &  Son,  Fabius,  N.  Y. 


MISTAKEN  DUE.  TO  LACK  OF  LXPLRILNCL.  55 

that  a  piece  or  kind  of  work  becomes  largely  mechanical,  head  and  baud    working  together 
without  conscious  effort  to  keep  their  operations  in  harmony. 

The  novice  in  poultry  keeping  who  undertakes  to  establish  and  manage  a  plant  all  by  him- 
self, has  a  great  variety  of  unfamiliar  things  to  think  about.  As  the  Irishman  expressed  it  in 
his  parody  on  Poe's  well  known  poem,  "  The  Raven,"  he  has  to  spend  a  great  deal  of  time  and 
gray  matter  in  "  thinkin'  thoughts  he  never  thought  of  thiukin'  of  before."  He  also  has  to 
learn  to  do  a  number  of  things  quite  new  to  him,  and  as  a  result  he  does  a  great  deal  of  hard 
work  both  mental  and  physical,  and  has  very  little  to  show  for  it. 

Frequently  he  has  never  even  seen  a  well  equipped  poultry  plant,  and  has  no  knowledge  at 
all  of  good  methods  of  doing  the  work  on  his  plant.  Often  he  makes  very  hard  work  of  very 
simple  things  just  because  he  has  no  one  to  tell  him  or  show  him  what  to  do. 

But,  after  all,  the  work  of  caring  for  the  poultry  and  the  worry  which  this  work  causes  an 
inexperienced  man  or  woman  constitute  the  least  part  of  the  inexperienced  proprietor's  real 
troubles.  Even  before  this  work  begins  he  is  called  upon  to  decide  matters  of  deepest  impoi- 
tance  to  the  success  of  his  business  while,  as  yet,  his  opinions  on  the  subjects  involved  are  not 
worth  a  cent  to'himseif  or  to  anyone  else.  The  result  of  this  is  that  such  beginners  are  con- 
stantly doing  things  which  to  persons  having  any  real  working  knowledge  of  the  business,  and 
likewise  to  all  persons  in  the  habit  of  exercising  plain  practical  common  sense  appear  incredibly 
stupid  and  altogether  inexcusable. 

I  had  some  correspondence  not  long  ago  with  a  man  who  was  having  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
with  roup  and  rheumatism  in  his  floek.  He  used  the  most  approved  rtmedies  for  both  without 
securing  any  permanent  improvement  in  the  general  condition  of  his  flock.  After  repeated 
inquiries  as  to  conditions  I  learned  that  his  houses  were  located  on  low  damp  ground,  where 
both  soil  and  atmosphere  were  objectionable  from  a  poultryman's  points  of  view.  His  houi»es 
were  only  dry  in  periods  of  drouth,  and  often  there  was  stagnant  water  all  around  them.  He 
had  not  even  the  excuse  of  having  had  the  place  already  on  his  hands  before  he  went  into 
poultry  to  offer,  nor  could  he  plead  that  he  did  not  know  that  the  location  was  unfavorable. 

He  had  bought  this  land  for  a  poultry  farm  because  he  had  made  up  his  mind  to  try  poultry 
keeping,  and  this  was  the  only  farm  h^e  had  been  able  to  find  within  the  limited  time  he  allowed 
himself  to  find  a  farm  that  came  within  his  means,  and  he  had  thought  that  even  with  the  dis- 
advantages of  this  location  he  could  —  by  giving  his  fowls  special. care  —  make  enough  in  a  few- 
years  to  buy  a  more  suitable  farm. 

I  could  give  numerous  similar  instances  where  people  have  deliberately  gone  contrary  to  the 
known  teachings  of  experience,  because  that  experience  not  being  personal  to  themselves,  they 
could  not  realize  the  danger  and  folly  of  rejecting  its  lessons.  Had  they  learned  the  business 
first  under  a  competent  instructor  they  would  not  have  been  likely  to  go  badly  wrong,  for  the 
habit  of  doing  a  thing  right  often  keeps  one  out  of  trouble,  even  if  he  does  not  understand  the 
reasons  for  the  method  he  uses  — and  has  never  seen  a  practical  demonstration  of  the  conse- 
quences of  doing  that  particular  thing  in  some  wrong  way.  Someone  has  said,  "  Success  does 
not  consist  in  never  making  mistakes,  but  in  never  making  the  same  mistake  twice."  I  don't 
think  that  assertion  will  bear  a  very  close  analysis;  very  few  generalizations  of  the  kind  will; 
but  it  certainly  has  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  it. 

As  I  look  back  over  the  years  when  I  was  learning  poultry  keeping — experience  made  largely 
of  mistakes — I  recall  that  at  the  close  of  each  season  I  used  to  note,  in  reviewing  that  season's 
work,  that  my  marked  progress  had  been  principally  along  the  one  or  two  lines  in  which  I 
had  found  most  discouragement  and  loss  in  the  previous  season,  and  to  which  I  had  therefore 
^iven  most  thought  and  attention;  and  in  the  next  season  work  on  those  lines  was  compara- 
tively easy,  had  perhaps  advanced  to  the  mechanical  stage,  and  more  time  could  be  given  to 
some  other  troublesome  matter. 

This  was  progress,  and  there  was  a  certain  satisfaction  in  working  things  out  for  oneself,, 
but  it  was  a  slow  and  laborious  progress,  and  the  cost  was  enormously  greater  than  if  I  had 
learned  the  business  in  the  right  way. 

Tbere  is  another  way  in  which  poultry  keeping  is  hard  for  most  people— and  very  bard  for 
eorne — which  few  think  of  until  they  learn  it  by  experience. 

The  business  is  very  confining,  and  so  in  time  becomes  monotonous. 


56  LES5ON5  IN    POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

Then  It  becomes  a  question  of  whether  the  poultry  keeper  can  take  up  some  form  of  recre- 
ation that  can  be  adapted  to  such  leisure  as  he  cau  secure,  and  furnish  relaxation  which  will 
break  the  monotony  of  his  work  without  interfering  with  it.  If  he  cannot  do  this — and  if  he 
is  of  such  a  disposition  that  he  cannot  stand  the  monotony  of  the  life,  he  is  very  apt  to  begin 
to  cut  his  duty  here  and  there  to  get  time  for  favorite  pleasures,  and  when  he  does  this  the 
finish  of  his  venture  is  only  a  question  of  time. 

The  poultry  keeper — like  all  who  have  the  care  of  live  stock — has  to  give  the  real  needs  of  his 
stock  precedence  over  all  ordinary  claims  upon  his  time  and  attention.  The  care  of  the  stock 
will  frequently  require  long  days  of  labor  extended  far  into  the  night,  loss  of  sleep,  and  denial 
of  many  pleasures. 

"Business  tir>t"  must  be  his  invariable  rule,  for  there  is  no  other  line  of  work  in  which  the 
penalties  of  slight  infringements  of  that  rule  are  more  sure  or  more  quickly  felt.  Whoever 
linds  it  too  hard  to  follow  that  rule  will  fail  in  poultry  keeping. 

A  common  cause  of  failure— which  is  in  part  the  cause  of  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
failures  in  poultry  keeping— is  a  lack  of  sufficient  capital.  Any  business  undertaken  with 
insufficient  capital  is  heavily  handicapped  at  the  start.  In  poultry  keeping  it  is  almost  the  rule 
for  men  to  begin  with  an  amount  of  available  capital  which  is  in&ignin'caut  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  actually  required  by  their  plans. 

Those  supposed  authorities  on  poultry  keeping  who  have  so  industriously  preached  that  the 
poultry  business  requires  smaller  capital  and  will  yield  larger  returns  on  the  investment  than 
any  other,  have  a  great  many  failures  to  answer  for,  and  so  have  those  who  have  advised  pro- 
spective poultrymen  to  go  ahead  on  a  capital  which  they  could  not  help  knowing  was  insufficient. 

While  I  blame  such  persons  for  misleading  people,  I  have  not  as  much  sympathy  as  some 
have  for  those  who  allow  themselves  to  be  misled,  and  have  not  much  patience  with  them 
when  they  try  to  put  all  the  responsibility  for  their  failures  on  those  who  advised  them  badly, 
because  too  many  such  cases  come  to  my  notice  where  people  have  also  been  given  good  advice 
— but  have  followed  the  bad  because  it  was  more  in  accordance  with  their  desires. 

I  sometimes  think  that  most  of  the  people  who  ask  advice  about  going  into  the  poultry 
business  are  simply  looking  for  encouragement  to  go  ahead  with  plans — which  are  often  very 
peculiar  plans, — and  keep  asking  until  they  get  thje  kind  of  advice  or  encouragement  they 
want.  In  such  cases  as  this,  both  adviser  and  advised  are  equally  responsible  for  the  failure, 
but  the  division  of  responsibility  does  not  diminish  the  share  of  either. 

Far  too  maiiy  of  those  who  build  poultry  plants  have  not  capital  enough  to  properly  equip 
and  stock  them — to  say  nothing  of  running  them  until  the  profits  begin  to  appear.  And  so 
financial  worry  is  added  to  all  the  other  worries.  The  poultryman  goes  into  debt— practically 
mortgages  his  receipts  for  mouths  in  advance— carries  on  bis  business  in  a  hand  to  mouth  way, 
neither  buying  nor  selling  to  best  advantage;  interest  eats  up  a  large  part  of  his  profits,  and 
finally  he  is  forced  to  the  wall. 

Lack  of  business  ability  is  responsible  for  many  failures. 

It  is  very  difficult — if  not  quite  impossible — for  one  who  is  not  a  fairly  good  business  man 
to  make  much  of  a  success  of  poultry  keeping,  and  in  some  branches  of  the  business  a  man  is 
seriously  handicapped  if  he  is  not  a  good  correspondent  and  salesman. 

My  observation  has  been  that  the  poultrymen  who  lack  business  ability — who  are  deficient  in 
the  trading  faculty,  seldom  realize  that  the  fault  is  with  themselves.  Many  of  them  are  dis- 
posed to  quarrel  with  the  conditions  of  the  business  and  to  imagine  all  kinds  of  crookedness 
and  meanness  the  most  substantial  aids  to  the  advancement  of  their  more  successful 
competitors. 

I  suppose  that  in  New  England  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  long  on  the  lack  of  business 
ability,  for  Yankees  are  supposed  to  be  born  traders,  and  if  a  genuine  Yankee  fails  in  poultry 
keeping  we  have  to  lay  it  to  one  of  the  other  causes. 

The  three  things  named  — inexperience,  lack  of  capital,  and  lack  of  business  ability,  I  con- 
sider the  principal  causes  of  failures  in  poultry  keeping;  but,  besides  these  there  are  numerous 
minor  causes  which  frequently  prevent  success,  or  turn  most  promising  prospects  into  failure. 


CRUDE  IDLAS  AND  POOR  METHODS. 


57 


Perhaps  in  a  strictly  systematic  treatment  of  the  subject  some  of  the  minor  matters  should 
be  classified  under  the  others  and  considered  as  subordinate  to  them;  but  I  do  not  think  that 
to  do  so  would  give  them  any  more  force,  and  it  seems  to  me  much  the  better  way  to  consider 
them  independently. 

A  number  of  errors  similar  to  that  of  selecting  a  bad  location,  which  has  been  mentioned, 
are  common.  Sometimes  these  errors  are  the  results  of  inexperience,  sometimes  they  are  due 
to  the  prejudices  or  lollies  of  poultrymen  of  experience  enough  to  have  acquired  good  judgment 
in  the  matters  involved.  Of  this  kind  are  errors  in  poultry  house  construction— not  the  minor 
errors,  but  the  big  mistakes  —  the  mistakes  that  are  so  absurd  that  they  are  serious.  There  are 
H  great  many  poultrymeu — 'and  not  all  of  them  inexperienced  novices  —  who,  when  they  get 
an  idea  which  they  think  would  work  well  in  a  poultry  house,  are  not  satisfied  to  test  it  on  a 
ttmall  scale  first,  but  must  apply  it,  at  whatever  cost,  to  one  large  building  at  least— If  not  to 
tue  whole  plant. 


Breeding  House  at  Jordan  Farm,  Hingham,  Mass. 

There  are  hundreds  of  poultry  houses  in  this  country  where  the  incorporation  of  a  few 
•*'  original  ideas"  is  costing  a  great  deal  in  extra  work  and  wasted  time;  hundreds  where 
wrong  construction  makes  it  unnecessarily  hard  to  keep  fowls  healthy  and  productive.  There 
is  absolutely  no  excuse  for  this,  for  the  construction  of  a  good  poultry  house  is  about  a.* 
wimple  in  theory  as  the  construction  of  a  good  dry  goods  box,  and  it  Is  hardly  more  difficult  in 
practice. 

Too  many  people  seem  to  think  that  changing  a  good  plan  is  improving  it,  especially  if  they 
think  the  idea  of  the  change  driginal  with  themselves;  and  such  people  are  not  apt  to  accept 
the  testimony  of  others  as  to  results  of  putting  their  ideas  into  practice.  As  a  rule  the  mis- 
carriage of  their  plan  will  convince  them  that  it  is  wrong. 

In  justice  to  the  general  good  sense  of  poultrymen,  however,  it  ought  to  be  said  that  the 
majority  of  tbem  are  quick  to  see  errors  of  this  kind  when  use  brings  them  out,  and  would  be 
•quick  to  correct  them  if  they  could  take  time  to  do  so,  or  could  stand  the  expense.  , 


58 


LLS50N5  IN    POULTRY   KLLPING  —  SECOND  SLRILS. 


A  great  many  poultrymen  lose  time  and  money  by  clinging  to  poor  methods  of  doing  work. 
Indeed,  almost  all  poultry  men  lose  in  this  way.  That  is  one  of  the  disadvantages  of  being 
mostly  self  taught  in  anything.  One  works  out  a  poor  method,  and  after  that  becomes  a  habit 
finds  it  hard  to  change.  I  have  known  large  poultry  farms  developed  from  very  small  begin- 
nings where  methods  which  were  all  very  well  for  a  few  dozen  hens  and  chickens,  but  wholly 
inadequate  to  doing  the  work  economically  for  a  few  hundreds,  were  continued  when  the 
number  of  fowls  and  chicks  aggregated  several  thousands. 

If  this  fault  occurs  only  at  one  or  two  points  it  may  not  make  the  larger  business  a  failure — 
though  it  will  surely  cut  the  profits;  but  if  it  is  general  it  is  sure  to  make  a  failure,  and  it  is 
because  they  dq  not  develop  methods  suitable  to  their  increased  stock  that  so  many  poultrymen 
who  are  successful  on  a  small  scale  fail  to  do  well  on  a  large  scale. 

After  a  poultry  plant  is  once  built  and  stocked  the  most  important  item  of  expense  is  the 


Capons  in  Colony  Houses  at  Jordan  Farm,  Hingham,  Mass. 

labor.  The  cost  of  feed  may  be  greater,  but  the  cost  of  labor  is  more  important  because  more 
difficult  to  regulate. 

A  well  known  poultryman  once  said  —  referring  to  someone  else's  habit  of  getting  up  early 
and  having  a  great  part  of  the  routine  morning  work  on  his  plant  out  of  the  way  before  break- 
fast—  that  there  was  no  need  of  getting  up  so  early  if  one  would  lie  awake  long  enough  at 
night  to  plan  easy  ways  of  doing  his  work. 

I  don't  think  he  meant  this  to  be  taken  literally.  I  imagine  his  idea  was  to  convey  as  forcibly 
as  possible  the  idea  that  to  learn  to  work  well — particularly  where  there  are  many  different  tasks 
to  be  fitted  into  a  day's  work  —  one  must  do  a  great  deal  of  thinking  and  planning  for  the  work. 

A  half  an  hour  is  not  very  much  time;  but  see  what  a  saving  of  time  a  poultryman  would 
effect  who  would  so  rearrange  his  work,  or  so  improve  some  method  that  he  would  save  a  half 
an  hour  a  day.  Most  poultrymen  work  365  days  in  the  year.  A  half  hour  saved  each  day 
would  mean  in  the  aggregate  three  weeks  of  six  days  of  ten  hours  each  —an  item  worth  look- 
ing after.  This  time,  properly  used,  would  enable  many  a  poultryman  to  do  a  great  main 


LACK  OF  JUDGMENT  AND  STABILITY.  59 

things  left  undone  for  lack  of  time  —  there  are  plenty  of  such  things  on  the  average  poultry 
plant  — or  take  a  little  needed  recreation. 

There  are  a  great  many  old  poultrymen  who  have  their  work  so  well  systematized  that  it 
would  be  hard  to  plan  such  a  saving  in  time  as  this.  The  old  hand's  shortcomings  in  such 
matters  are  generally  limited  to  occasional  tasks.  His  regular  work  as  a  rule  he  has,  as  the 
saying  is,  down  fine.  But  nearly  all  beginners,  and  most  of  those  who,  after  a  few  years  hart! 
work,  are  still  creeping  along  on  the  ragged  edge  of  failure,  could  save  much  more  than  a  half 
an  hour  each  day. 

The  old  method  of  learning  a  trade,  when  a  boy  worked  as  an  apprentice  for  a  number  of 
years,  and  then  as  a  journeyman  traveled  about,  working  a  short  time  in  each  of  a  number  of 
places,  is  the  ideal  way  of  learning  poultry  keeping.  I  sometimes  think  that  we  will  never 
know  just  what  can  be  done  with  poultry  until  we  have  among  poultrymen  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  bright  intelligent  men  who  have  grown  up  in  the  business,  and  thus  learned  it  more 
thoroughly  than  most  of  those  who  pick  it  up  later  in  life  ever  can  know  it.  When  that  time 
conies  we  may  look  to  see  successful  poultry  plants  on  a  very  large, scale  —  and  until  then  I  do 
not  think  we  shall. 

I  have  already  referred  incidentally  to  the  aptitude  for  the  work  of  caring  for  live  stock  as  a 
factor  in  successful  poultry  keeping.  If  we  attempt  to  analyze  this  faculty  we  find  that  it  con- 
fists  mostly  of  good  judgment  as  to  the  condition  and  needs  of  each  animal;  and  if  we  try  to 
learn  the  history,  or  trace  the  development  of  this  faculty  in  individuals,  we  find  that  it  is  a 
natural  talent  developed  by  experience  and  training.  Where  the  talent  is  conspicuous,  the  per- 
son possessing  it  will  be  quite  successful  from  the  first  with  almost  any  kind  of  live  stock,  and 
in  time  will  become  notably  successful.  Where  it  is  of  less  degree,  experience  and  training  — 
in  inverse  ratio  to  the  amount  of  talent  —  are  required  to  make  one  proficient  in  the  manage- 
ment of  livestock.  Where  this  faculty  or  talent  is  wholly  wanting,  I  do  not  think  it  possible 
for  the  person  so  deficient  to  ever  attain  any  respectable  measure  of  success.  His  occasional 
successes  will,  as  a  rule,  be  purely  accidental.  The  proportion  of  persons  thus  deficient  is 
probably  small — or  appears  so  because  few  of  them  attempt  to  go  into  stock  breeding.  Yetr 
first  and  last,  a  great  many  such  persons  do  engage  in  poultry  keeping,  and  if  they  are  of  per- 
severing disposition,  peg  away  at  it  for  a  long  time  before  they  come  to  a  realization  of  their 
unfilness  for  the  work. 

A  very  common  idea,  which  seems  to  me  wholly  wrong,  is  that  love  of  animals  Is  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  ability  to  manage  them  well. 

A  great  many  prospective  poultry  keepers  mention  that  as  the  first  and  most  important  of 
their  qualifications  for  making  a  success  with  poultry. 

As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  analyze  the  conditions  of  success  in  handling  live  stock,  a  Iovet 
or  strong  liking  for  animals,  and  good  judgment  in  caring  for  them  are  two  entirely  independ- 
ent attributes.  They  are  frequently  found  existing  together,  and  sometimes  one  helps  the 
other;  but  an  excess  of  affection  for  animals  is  apt  to  bias  one's  judgment  as  to  their  needs. 
The  cultivation  of  the  calculating  spirit  in  considering  animals  is  quite  essential  in  one  who 
keeps  them  for  profit,  and  this  spirit  is  likely  to  develop  a  very  cold  blooded  matter-of-fact 
brand  of  the  article  called  love. 

A  strain  of  fickleness  in  a  person's  character  is  likely  to  develop  in  various  ways  when  he 
engages  in  poultry  keeping,  and  nearly  always  in  ways  detrimental  to  the  success  of  his  busi- 
ness in  poultry. 

Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  illustration  of  this  is  found  in  the  case  of  persons  who  are  con- 
tinually changing  breeds  of  fowls,  never  keeping  any  one  long  enough  to  know  what  it  is  or 
what  they  can  do  with  it.  It  takes  several  3  ears  of  careful  handling  and  close  observation  to 
show  one  just  what  his  stock  is,  and  if  he  is  breeding  for  fancy  points  generally  several  years 
more  are  required  to  get  the  stock  on  such  footing  that  he  is  at  all  sure  of  results  from  it. 

This  being  the  case,  it  is  as  clearly  impossible  for  one  who  changes  breeds  every  year  or  two 
to  make  any  perceptible  progress  as  it  was  for  the  frog  in  the  well  which,  in  the  catch  problem 
in  the  old  mental  arithmetics,  was  said  to  crawl  up  three  feet  every  day,  and  slip  back  four  feet 
every  night. 


60  LL550N5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SLRILS. 

Just  at  present  a  desire  to  be  progressive  and  scientific  is  hurting  a  great  many  novices  in 
poultry  keeping. 

Poultry  and  agricultural  papers  have  published  numerous  articles  about  the  science  of  poul- 
try feeding,  written  by  persons  who  knew  very  little  of  either  science  or  feeding,  and  the  gen- 
eral impression  these  have  given  people  who  have  not  learned  feeding  by  practice  is  that  the 
jatiou  can  be,  and  should  be,  compounded  according  to  a  mathematical  formula,  and  exactly 
balanced  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  fowl  —  or  the  requirements  of  the  keeper  —  the  two  being 
assumed  to  be  synonymous. 

Now  the  scientific  investigation  of  articles  of  poultry  food,  and  of  results  of  methods  of  poul- 
try feeding  is  a  necessary  work  which  will,  in  time,  no  doubt  arrive  at  some  important  results; 
but  the  folly  of  persons  who  have  not  the  judgment  and  skill  to  take  a  tested  ration,  recom- 
mended by  experienced  feeders  after  years  of  use,  and  keep  a  stock  of  fowls  healthy  and  pro- 
ductive on  that  ration,  trying  to  compound  rations  by  formula,  and  feed  them  by  weight  is 
something  truly  appalling;  and  the  number  of  those  who  are  frittering  away  their  time  and 
money  while  trying  to  ma,ke  figures  and  weights  do  work  for  which  nature,  if  she  intended 
them  for  poultry  keepers  gave  them  brains  and  eyes,  is  very  much  greater  than  is  commonly 
supposed. 

Unless  restrained  within  very  narrow  limits,  the  disposition  to  experiment  and  investigate 
may  prevent  one  from  making  poultry  keeping  financially  successful. 

Experiments  are  expensive,  and  comparatively  few  of  them  yield  any  immediately  useful 
practical  results.  If  carefully  and  thoroughly  followed  out,  experiments  invariably  take  more 
•of  one's  time  and  thought  than  he  intended  they  should,  and  it  all  comes  out  of  time  and  energy 
which,  if  used  for  work  of  which  the  results  were  practically  assured  in  advance,  would  help 
instead  of  hindering  success. 

To  some,  experimental  work  is  in  the  line  of  recreation,  and  in  this- way  it  is  all  very  weTl  if 
«iot  allowed  to  interfere  with  regular  work  more  than  a  recreation  should;  but,  on  the  whole, 
aiul  as  a  general  rule,  it  is  much  better  not  to  engage  in  it  until  one's  poultry  business  is  on  an 
«s>ured  basis.  Even  then  it  must  be  indulged  in  but  moderately  by  those  keeping  poultry  for 
profit.  Let  them  leave  it  to  those  who  keep  poultry  for  pleasure,  and  to  the  experiment 
stations. 

Many  who  try  to  make  the  breeding  of  .fancy  or  exhibition  poultry  profitable,  fai.1  because 
they  are  urot,  and  never  can  be,  frfnciers. 

To  be  a  successful  fancier  one  must  be  something  of  an  artist,  with  a  keen  appreciation  of  the 
points  that  go  to  make  the  ideal  fowl  in  his  variety.  The  artistic  faculty  is  generally  a  birth- 
right. As  the  saying  goes:  "  Fanciers  are  born,  not  made."  Their  talent  improves  with  use, 
but,  if  small,  cannot  be  developed  by  training  to  the  same  extent  that  a  moderate  aptitude  for 
the  care  of  stock  may  be. 

It  has  seemed  to  me  very  noticeable  among  poultrymen  of  my  acquaintance  that  the  best 
fanciers  have  seemed  to  show  from  their  first  acquaintance  with  a  breed  or  variety  a  correct 
appreciation  of  what  a  fowl  of  that  breed  or  variety  should  be,  even  though  it  might  be  some 
years  before  they  learned  how  to  produce  the  desired  types  from  their  matings;  and  it  has 
seemed  just  as  noticeable  that  others,  after  years  of  studied  and  persistent  effort,  were  as  far 
away  from  producing  what  was  commonly  desired  in  fowls  of  the  breed  they  handled  as  they 
were  at  the  beginning.  In  some  this  was  evidently  due  to  inability  to  appreciate  all  the  details 
of  beauty  in  the  best  representatives  of  the  breed.  In  others  it  was  as  clearly  due  to  the 
absence  of  a  disposition  to  harmonize  their  personal  tastes  with  accepted  ideals  or  standards. 

The  successful  fancier  must  not  only  have  good  artistic  perceptions,  a  good  eye  for  form  and 
«olor,  but  his  practical  success  depends  upon  his  being  conventional,  upon  being  one  of  those 
whose  ideas  naturally  harmonize  with  ideas  prevailing  about  them. 

So  —  it  is  possible  for  anyone  to  make  practical  test  of  whether  his  artistic  perceptions  are 
of  the  degree  and  quality  necessary  to  make  him  successful  as  a  breeder  of  fancy  poultry.  To 
make  such  test  he  has  only  to  compare  his  judgment  of  his  birds  with  that  of  others,  especially 
of  good  b.reed«rs  and  competent  judges.  He  will  find  these  agreeing  in  the  main,  though  often 
differing  in  particulars. 


SOME.  TYPICAL  VLNTURE.5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPIiNG.  61 


LESSON     V 


SECTION     II. 


Some  Typical  Ventures   in   Poultry  Keeping. 


HERE  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  successes  in  poultry  keeping.     Less  than  twenty 
years  ago  a  laboring  man  of  foreign  birth,  living  in  New  England,  bought  a  worn  ouV 
farm,  paying  a  email  amount  of  cash,  and  giving  a  mortgage  for  the  balance.    In  all 
his  life  this  man  had  never  earned  ow r  a  dollar  and  a  half  a  day.    He  was  industrious 
and  frugal.     His  wife  was  the  worthy  helpmeet  of  such  a  man,  doing  her  share  to  make  bis- 
slender  earnings  go  as  far  as  possible.    His  children  were  trained  in  the  industrious  and  thrifty 
habits  of  their  parents,  and  at  the  same  time  given  good  common  school  educations. 

At  the  time  this  farm  was  bought  the  sons  of  the  family  were  young  men,  working  generally,, 
as  I  have  been  told,  by  the  day  for  farmers  and  others  in  their  vicinity.  After  the  farm  was 
bought  the  father  and  his  several  sons  continued  day's  works  for  others,  carrying  on  the  opera- 
tions on  their  own  farm  at  such  T>dd  times  as  their  services  were  not  in  demand  elsewhere,  and 
in  this  way  turning  all  their  spare  time  to  good  account. 

In  their  efforts  to  make  the  farm  profitable  they  tried  various  special  lines, among  them  poul- 
try keeping.  They  established  quite  a  flock  of  practical  thoroughbred  fowls,  and  found  then* 
increasingly  profitable,  and  were  gradually  increasing  their  equipment  and  stock,  when  in  some 
way  their  attention  was  turned  to  duck  growing.  Just  how  this  came  about  is  not,  so  far  as  I 
have  learned,  a  matter  of  record  •  but  in  view  of  the  fact  that  this  was  just  at  the  beginning  of 
the  great  boom  in  market  duck  culture  there  is  nothing  at  all  strange  about  it.  And  then  there 
was  located  not  many  miles  from  them,  the  farm  of  one  of  the  pioneer  duck  growers  in  thi* 
country,  a  man  who  was  doing  a  large  and  growing  business  in  market  ducks.  Had  the  inter- 
est in  duck  culture  been  less  widespread  than  it  was  they  could  hardly  have  failed  to  hear  of 
this  man  and  to  be  interested  in  what  he  was  doing.  They  visited  him  and  decided  to  begin 
duck  growing  in  a  small  way.  Within  a  few  years  their  business  had  so  increased  that  the 
entire  family  were  giving  all  their  time  to  it.  The  farm  had  been  paid  for,  a  plant  representing- 
very  much  more  than  the  value  of  the  land  had  been  erected.  (Though  a  large  plant,  it  was  by 
no  means  an  elaborate  one).  Their  joint  incomes  were  steadily  increasing:  they  had  ample 
capital  to  meet  the  growing  demands  of  their  growing  business,  and  secure  correspondingly 
larger  returns  on  the  amount  invested  ;  the  farm  acreage  was  gradually  made  more  productive; 
new  houses  were  erected.  In  less  than  ten  years  from  the  start  on  that  farm  their  business- 
ranked  among  the  first  poultry  businesses  in  this  country,  both  in  volume  and  profitableness. 

About  the  same  time  that  operations  began  on  this  farm  some  members  of  an  enormousiy 
wealthy  family — men,  too,  who  had  made  their  money,  and  are  still  making  it  in  their  regular 
business,- established  a  poultry  farm  only  a  few  hours  distant  from  that  I  have  just  briefly 
described.  They  had  unlimited  land  and  unlimited  capital.  They  hired  a  manager  at  a  good 
salary  and  built  an  expensive  plant.  They  went  into  it  for  profit,  not  for  fun;  but  when  I 
saw  the  plant  about  ten  years  after  its  opening,  I  was  told  by  one  who  knew  its  financial  con- 
dition intimately,  that  the  plant  represented  a  net  loss  to  its  ownersof  over$20,000.  They  were 
men  who  rould  stand  even  heavier  loss  without  financial  or  personal  inconvenience,  but  thpv 
were  not  willing  to  run  the  plant  at  a  loss.  That  was  not  what  they  operated  it  for.  They 


62 


LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 


House  for  "  Winter  Chickens"  on  a  "  South  Shore  "  Farm,  H.  D.  Smith,  Norwell,  Mass. 

liired  another  manager,  who  was  able  to  make  a  better  financial  showing,— yet  not,  as  I  judge 
from  the  fact  that  he  remained  but  a  few  years, — good  enough  to  be  encouraging  either  to  him 
or  to  the  proprietors.  The  plant  represents  too  much  dead  capital,  and  its  manager,  however 
competent,  would  always  find  himself  handicapped  in  various  ways.  I  am  not  able  to  say  in 
just  what  condition  the  plant  now  is,  but  there  is  little  likelihood  of  its  ever  being  made 
profitable  enough  to  wipe  out  the  heavy  deficits  of  its  earlier  years  and  leave  its  owners  square. 


A  good  many  years  ago  there  were  two  brothers,  young  men  and  unmarried,  who  jointly 
bought  a  little  farm  away  back  in  the  hills  in  central  New  York.  They  had  but  little  money  to 
pay  down.  Together  they  worked  the  farm  in  summer.  In  winter  one  ran  the  farm  and  the 
other  taught  the  distri/zt  school,  assisting  with  the  chores  mornings  and  evenings.  The$  went 
on  this  way  for  several  years,  making  a  bare  living  and  just  keeping  up  the  interest  on  the 
mortgage,on  the  farm. 

As  they  worked  together  they  used  to  discuss  various  methods  of  making  the  farm  more 
profitable.  Their  attention  was  finally  drawn  to  the  possibilities  of  profit  in  poultry,  and  after 
talking  It  over  they  concluded  — to  go  into  the  poultry  business?— Oh,  no;— to  keep  strict 
account  for  the  little  flock  of  fowls  they  had  on  the  farm,  and  see  for  themselves  what  they 
could  make  from  a  small  number. 

The  flock  consisted  of  less  than  a  score  of  ordinary  fowls.  The  profit  on  this  flock  was  so 
satisfactory  that  they  increased  the  flock, — abjout  doubled  it.  That  was  still  a  small  flock,  not 
at  all  up  in  numbers  to  the  ideas  of  the  average  beginner  of  the  number  with  which  it  is  worth 
while  to  make  a  start.  The  third  year  they  increased  in  about  the  same  proportion,  the  flock 
being  still  below  the  hundred  mark.  After  that  the  same  rate  of  increase  made  large  additions 
to  the  flock  every  year.  They  began  to  get  into  thoroughbred  stock;  went  to  local  shows  and 
won  prizes;  went  to  New  York  and  won  more  prizes,  and  began  to  sell  eggs  for  hatching  and 
exhibition  and  breeding  stock  at  high  prices.  Money  began  to  be  easier  with  them.  They  left 
the  small  farm  and  bought  a  larger  and  better  one  more  conveniently  located.  The  profits  on 
poultry  gave  them  the  means  to  enlarge  other  farm  lines. 


50ML  STRIKING  CONTRASTS. 


63 


Their  "  fancy"  poultry  business  was  but  an  accessory  of  their  work  in  practical  lines.  As 
soon  as  they  began  to  have  eggs  to  sell  in  quantities,  one  of  them  went  to  New  York  and  looked 
up  special  customers  who  would  pay  extra  prices  for  a  good  article.  Finding  the  demand  too 
great  to  be  filled  by  their  own  supply,  they  began  to  collect  eggs  from  their  neighbors,  and 
gradually  extended  the  circle  of  collections  until,  when  I  visited  the  farm  last,  they  were  hand- 
ling about  $25,000  of  eggs  a  year.  The  farm  is  one  of  the  finest  in  that  section.  One  of  the 
brothers  retired  from  the  firm  a  few  years  ago,  and  the  one  who  remained  and  his  son  continue 
the  farm  along  the  same  lines.  They  are  also  interested  in  many  outside  enterprises.  The 
head  of  the  firm  said  to  me  a  few  years  ago:  "Our  poultry  gave  us  our  start.  We  have  made 
more  money  since  from  other  things  than  we  ever  did  from  poultry;  but  poultry  has  always 
paid  us  well." 

A  few  years  ago  a  stranger  stepped  up  to  me  at  a  New  England  poultry  show,  and  said  : 
•'•You  were  pointed  out  to  me  as  the  editor  of  FARM-l'ouLTRY.  I've  just  won  a  lot  of  prize* 
here,  and  I  want  to  advertise  in  your  next  paper.  I  want  a  big  space,  and  I  want  your  best 
term*.  I've  spent  a  lot  of  good  money  for  birds  to  show,  and  now  I  want  to  do  business. 
I  believe  the  way  to  get  business  is  to  sling  printers'  ink.  'I've  got  plenty  of  money,  and  I'm 
going  to  sling  it."  By  "it"  he  referred,  of  course,  to  the  ink  first,  but  indirectly,  I  suppose,  to 
hi*  money.  He  had  bought  a  tine  farm.  He  put  up  expensive  buildings.  He  took  in  a  poul- 
try fancier  of  more  experience  as  partner.  He  remained  in  the  business  less  than  two  years. 


A  man  engaged  in  a  manufacturing  business  bought  a  small  farm  inside  the  city  limits  for  a 
home.  There  was  room  for  a  garden,  cow,  and  of  course  some  poultry.  He  had  never  taken 
•any  special  interest  in  poultry,  but  fowls  were  a  necessary  part  of  the  equipment  of  such  a 
place,  so  he  bought  a  few — just  to  keep  the  family  in  eggs. 

Having  the  fowls  he  felt  that  he  must  know  something  about  fowls— so  he  began  to  read  a 
poultry  paper.  It  happened  to  be  FARM-POULTRY.  Heading  it  he  became  interested  in 
several  features  in  poultry  culture.  He  built  a  broiler  plant,  and  made  something  of  a  reputa- 
tion in  broiler  raising.  At  the  same  time  he  began  to  breed  one  of  the  most  popular  varieties  of 
fowls.  He  exhibited^  and  won  prizes.  He  advertised  in  a  small  way  at  first,  gradually  increas^ 
ing  as  his  stock  and  trade  warranted  the  expense,  until  in  a  few  years  he  had  one  of  the  largest 
poultry  businesses  in  the  country,  and  the  broiler  adjunct  was  dropped  because  it  was  found 
more  profitable  to  devote  all  attention  to  the  production  and  sale  of  high  class  stock. 

About  the  same  time  an  elderly  gentleman  of  considerable  means,  bought  a  farm  with  the 
idea  of  fitting  up  a  poultry  plant  for  bis  only  son  who  was  an  invalid  and  needed  outdoor 
occupation.  He  spared  no  expense  in  equipping  it.  He  employed  an  "expert"  to  Jay  out  the 


'Poultry  House  in  Corner  of  a  Farm  Door  Yard. 


64 


LL550NS  IN   POULTRY   KEEPING  —  SECOND  SLRILS. 


plant  and  paid  roundly  for  "expert"  advice  at  every  turn.  He  soon  found  that  in  order  to  get 
anything  at  all  out  of  the  plant  he  must  give  it  his  personal  attention,  and  the  farm  was  kept 
going  for  several  years  on  this  basis.  Meantime  the  son  died,  and  the  father,  to  whom  the 
plant  was  now  of  no  use,  was  glad  to  sell  it  for  a  small  part  of  its  cost. 

Perhaps  thirty  years  ago  the  son  of  a  New  England  farmer,  arriving  at  an  age  when  enter- 
prising young  men  begin  to  plan  very  seriously  their  life  work,  concluded  to  try  what  he  could 
do  with  pouJtry.  He  began  on  his  father's  farm,  and  with  a  cash  loan  to  give  him  a  start. 
He  worked  for  his  father  for  his  board,  and  to  repay  the  loan,  while  getting  his  stock  estab- 
lished. Beginning  as  a  practical  poultryman,  he  became  interested  in  exhibition  stock,  was 
very  successful  in  breeding  it,  was  an  excellent  salesman,  and  in  a  few  years  built  up  a  business 
ranking  among  the  largest  in  the  country.  As  his  trade  in  tine  poultry  grew  he  'dropped  the 
market  side,  and  gave  all  attention  to  the  lines  that  were  giving  hint  greatest  profit.  He  has 
prospered  in  business.  A  few  }ears  ago  he  said  to  a  group  of'  friends  to  whom  he  had  just 


While  Leghorn   Chicks  on  Farm  of  H.  J.  Blanchard,   Groton,  N.   Y. 

shown  a  business  block  he  had  recently  completed  in  a  town  near  his  home,  "This  is  my  provision 
for  my  family  in  case  I  am  taken  away.  This  building  will  give  them  a  comfortable  income.'' 
Years  ago  I  heard  him  s«y  that  while  he  had  found  poultry  keeping  profitable,  he  believed  that 
any  man  who  could  make  money  at  poultry  could  make  more  money  at  something  else. 

Eight  or  ten  years  ago  a  traveling  man  bought  a  farm  in  New  Jersey,  and  put  a  good  sized 
poultry  plant  on  it.  Immediately  marvelous  tales  of  its  success  began  to  be  circulated.  Hi» 
detailed  statements  of  results  showed  how  easy  it  was  to  make  money  with  poultry  if  only  you 
had  the  personal  equipment  which  everyone  who  thinks  of  starting  supposes  he  has.  In  a  very 
short  time  the  remarkable  success  of  the  plant  on  the  established  scale  indicated  such  great  profits 
from  larger  operations  that  he  easily  interested  capital  in  his  schemes,  and  the  farm  was  made 
one  of  the  show  farms  of  America.  People  came  from  far  and  near  to  see  it.  The  poultry 
press  generally  gave  it  extended  write-ups.  Then  all  at  qnce  the  promoter  disappeared,  and 
those  who  bad  furnished  the  capital  put  the  concern  into  bankruptcy. 


HOW   ONL   MAN'5   PLANT  GRE.W. 


65 


.  Not  many  miles  from  Boston  tliere  is  a  small  farm  which  the  present  owner  purchased  about 
a  dozen  or  less  years  ago.  He  had  money  enough  to  pay  for  the  farm,  make  the  old  house 
habitable,  buy  a  small  flock  of  hens,  and  have  a  few  dollars  left  for  an  emergency.  For  a  few- 
years  he  continued  working  at  his  occupation.  He  saved  what  he  could.  The  few  hens  earned! 
something;  when  he  had  money  enough  ahead  to  buy  material  for  a  house  he  bought  it.  Then 
at  such  odd  times  as  he  could  he  put  up  the  house,  at  the  same  time  planning  to  have  increased 
hts  stock  so  that  when  the  house  was  ready  he  had  extra  pullets  to  fill  it.  He  planted  fruit 
trees,  and  seeded  down  such  parts  of  the  farm  as  were  suitable  to  grass.  He  kept  a  cow  or 
two.  Everything  was  made  to  contribute  something  to  the  total  income.  It  did  not  take  as 
long  to  get  money  ahead  for  the  second  house  as  for  the  first.  When  the  money  was  ready  the 
material  was  bought,  and  the  house  built  at  his  convenience.  By  this  time  his  farm  was  taking 
more  of  his  time,  the  outside  work  was  gradually  reduced  as  home  demands  became  more 
imperative,  and  soon  his  farm  was  taking  all  of  his  time,  and  he  was  making  a  living  from  it. 


A   Town  Lot  Poultry  Plant  at  Welleslcy  Hills,  Mass. 

lie  has  now  house  capacity  for  800  to  900  hens,  keeps  several  cows,  and  makes  a  comfortable 
living  jmd  a  little  more.  You  need  not Tl rive  far  from  his  place  in  any  direction  to  see  the 
wrecks  of  poultry  ventures  embarked  much  more  auspiciously  than  his.  He  is  in  no  sense  of 
the  word  a  fancier.  He  is  even  indifferent  to  thoroughbred  stock,  using  mostly  good  grades, 
but  his  poultry  pays. 

In  that  section  of  the  old  Bay  State  celebrated  among  poultrymen  as  headquarters  for  fine 
market  poultry,  two  brothers  began  some  fifteen  or  sixteen  years  ago  to  try  to  grow  winter 
chickens.  One,  who  was  employed  in  a  factory,  had  a  little  money  saved  up.  He  bought 
some  incubators,  contracted  for  some  eggs,  and  the  other  brother  went  to  work  to  see  what 
he  could  do  with  them.  Hatches  were  discouraging.  Hundreds  of  eggs  went  through  the 
machines  without  giving  any  substantial  supply  of  chicks.  The  greater  part  of  a  hundred 
dollars  had  been  expended  in  eggs,  and  the  man  who  was  running  the  machines  wanted  to 
quit.  He  thought  it  was  no  use.  But  the  capitalist  of  the  pair  insisted  on  sticking  to  it  aa 


66  LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SLCOND  5LRILS. 

Jong  as  he  had  money  or  credit  to  buy  eggs,  and  soon  luck  changed.  They  got  enough  out  of 
the  first  season's  work  to  encourage  them  to  go  ahead.  Slowly  but  surely  they  did  go  ahead  until 
they  had  a  plant  to  which  both  gave  their  full  time  during  most  of  the  year,  (their  special  line 
giving  them  a  month  or  two  off  in  the  summer  if  they  chose  to  take  it),  and  were  making 
more  clear  money  for  each  every  year  than  the  average  professional  or  business  man  makes. 


'Two  young  men,  brothers-in-law,  employed  in  a  factory,  together  built  up  a  poultry  busi- 
ness to  the  stage  where  one  of  them,  whose  health  was  not  good,  and  to  whom  constant 
indoor  work  was  injurious,  could  give  all  the  time  that  he  was  able  to  work  to  it,  the  other 
helping  him  out  in  emergencies.  The  plant  was  at  the  home  of  the  invalid  proprietor.  They 
would  have  continued  to  develop  it  until  large  enough  to  make  a  living  for  both,  but  then1 
was  not  land  enough,  nor  was  it  possible  to  buy  adjoining  land.  At  length  an  opportunity 
came  to  buy  a  piece  of  woodland  a  short  distance  away.  It  could  be  bought  for  $150.  I  do 
not  remember  the  acreage,  but  it  was  not  large,  only  enough  for  a  small  farm.  It  was  pur- 
chased by  the  second  man.  He  cleared  it,  and  made  enough  on  the  sale  of  the  wood  to  pay 
for  the  place,  so  that  he  started  with  the  land  clear,  and  what  small  capita]  he  had  of  his  own 
could  be  put  into  a  dwelling,  poultry  buildings,  and  equipment.  The  house  erected  was  small 
and  plain,  only  sufficient  for  the  actual  needs  of  the  family,  costing  probably  not  to  exceed  $500. 
The  outbuildings  also  were  built  as  economically  as  possible. 

The  two  men,  though  not  now  in  partnership,  worked  on  a  cooperative  plan.  The  original 
plant  had  been  run  as  an  egg  farm.  It  had  a  capacity  of  about  nine  hundred  hens.  By  the 
arrangement  made,  the  owner  of  this  plant  furnished  the  other  at  market  pi-ice  all  the  eggs  he 
wanted  for  incubation,  carrying  the  account  until  fall,  when  he  took  his  pay  in  pullets,  at 
market  prices  for  poultry  at  the  time  they  were  delivered.  As  the  man  who  grew  the  chick- 
ens hatched  both  winter  and  summer  chickens,  and  grew  many  more  than  required  to  furni-h 
the  other  what  pullets  he  needed,  the  value  of  the  eggs  he  took  would  each  year  run  clo:<e  to 
the  value  of  the  pullets  he  delivered.  The  plan  worked  very  satisfactorily  until  with  the  con- 
tinued ill  health  of  the  invalid  poultryman,  a  change  of  climate  became  necessary  for  him. 
Both  farms  were  sold,  and  both  families  moved  to  a  milder  climate. 


On  a  Maine  farm  devoted  to  general  farming  I  found  a  flock  of  between  400  and  500  hens 
kept  in  houses  built  to  accommodate  50  to  100  fowls  each,  these  houses  being  distributed  within 
a  radius  of  the  dwelling  which  made  it  not  too  hard  a  task  for  the  farmer's  wife  and  mother  to 
attend  to  them  during  the  summer  when  the  men  were  engaged  in  the  fields,  the  men  taking 
care  of  •  the  fowls  at  other  seasons,  and  also  in  rough  weather.  There  were  too  many  hens 
close  to  the  house  to  admit  of  keeping  the  place  as  we  like  to  seethe  surroundings  of  a  dwell- 
ing; but  the  farmer  said  his  hens  were  the  best  paying  stock  on  the  place,  and  as  his  method  of 
hand  ling  them  was  adapted  to  his  situation  and  circumstances,  and  they  were  thrifty  and  pro- 
ductive,-he 'did  not  feel  disposed  to  make  any  sacrifice  of  profit  to  appearances  at  present. 
This  flock  had  been  built  up  very  slowly.  lie  had  been  seven  or  eight  years  in  getting  to  the 
number  he  had  when  I  saw  him.  He  said  the  usual  increase  had  been  about  fifty  hens  a  year, 
as  he  had  found  that  he  could  add  that  number  each  year  and  make  the  necessary  provision  for 
them  without  taking  more  of  his  income  for  the  purpose  than  he  conveniently  could. 


On  many  farms  in  Rhode  Island  hens  are  kept  by  the  "colony  system."  I  presume  that  on 
mo>t  of  these  farms  the  beginnings  of  the  system  date  back  for  over  a  generation,  and  on  many 
much  further  back  than  that.  I  spent  parts  of  two  days  at  different  times,  going  about  as  he 
cured  for  his  poultry  with  a  young  man  whose  father  and  grandfather  before  him  had  for  years 
kept  poultry  on  this  same  farm,  by  the  same  methods  and  with  the  same  kinds  of  stock.  With- 
out going  into  a  full  account  of  these  methods  here,  I  will  say  that  with  such  a  small  poultry 
bouse  as  might  beused  anywhere  —  on  farm  or  town  lot  —  as  a  unit,  ar.yone  who  has  room  to 
spread  his  fowls  out,  locating  houses  far  enough  apart  so  that  the  flocks  will  mingle  little,  can 
apply  this  system.  The  limits  of  it  come  with  the  limits  of  his  land.  All  that  he  has  to  do  is  put 
a  small  new  house  in  a  suitable  place  whenever  he  is  ready  to  do  so.  He  may  use  two  or  three 
houses,  or  he  may  use  a  hundred ;  the  system  is  the  same,  and  the  conditions  the  same  for  all. 


HOW  TWO  WOMEN   WENT   INTO   POULTRY  CULTURE.  67 

A  school  boy  became  interested  In  poultry,  bred  and  studied  a  popular  variety,  and  before 
he  was  out  of  his  teens  was  competing  successfully  with  veteran  fanciers.  He  was  educated 
for  a  profession,  but  his  health  being  poor  after  having  embarked  in  his  profession,  he  found 
the  confinement  too  much,  and  engaged  temporarily  as  manager  of  a  poultry  plant.  The 
position  proving  congenial  and  profitable,  he  continued  in  it.  Whether  he  is  as  well  off  finan- 
cially as  he  might  have  been  had  he  continued  in  the  line  of  work  first  chosen,  I  cannot  say, 
but  he  earns  a  very  fair  salary  now  in  a  position  which  still  leaves  him  a  little  time  forjudgiug 
shows,  contributing  to  the  poultry  press,  and  mating  fowls  for  others. 

A  lady  who  had  for  years. taught  school,  found  after  her  marriage  that  housework  was  far 
from  congenial.  After  many  consultations  with  the  gentleman  most  interested,  she  arranged 
to  hire  her  household  work  done  and  give  her  own  attention,  except  for  the  cares  devolving 
upon  the  wife  and  mother,  to  poultry,  of  which  she  was  very  fond.  Her  poultry  business 
grevv  and  flourished  until  the  problem  became  how  to  keep  it  from  intruding  upon  other 
obligations,  and  at  last  was  given  up  solely  because  it  was  found  impossible  to  make  a  satisfac- 
tory adjustment  of  business,  family,  and  social  cares. 

Another  school  teacher  whose  health  had  been  impaired  by  years  of  hard  work  to  such  an 
extent  that  she  had  to  give  up  teaching,  began  to  interest  herself  in  poultry.  She  made  her 
home  with  a  brother  whose  business  was  in  one  of  the  large  cities,  and  residence  on  a  farm 
near  a  suburban  town.  Beginning  with  a  few  dozen  fowls,  she  increased  in  a  few  years  to 
several  hundred,  the  receipts  each  year  netting  her  a  substantial  amount,  until  a  change  of 
residence  for  her  brother'*  family  was  necessary  to  give  the  children  the  educational  advan- 
tages desired,  since  when  she  hits  had  to  content  herself  with  a  few  pens  of  fowls  on  a  city  lot. 

I  know  a  young  man  whom  I  first  met  as  an  exhibitor  at  numerous  New  England  shows 
some  seven  or  eight  years  ago.  I  don't  know  whether  this  young  man  would  make  a  financial 
success  of  poultry  keeping— make  it  pay  —  either  for  himself  or  anyone  else.  It  has  happened 
that  he  has  more  than  once  been  selected  by  men  with  ample  funds  to  take  charge  of  poultry 
ventures~of  the  kind  that  have  never  yet  paid,  and  few  men  who  have  made  poultry  pay  can 
command  a  better  salary  or  show  net  earnings  in  a  year  larger  than  his  salary.  The  situation 
in  regard  to  such  places  as  he  has  filled  is  peculiar.  There  will  probably  always  be  a  demand 
for  men  to  run  poultry  farms  on  big  plans  for  men  who  will  be  convinced  that  their  plans  are 
not  practicable  only  when  it  is  made  clear  that  they  have  not  accomplished  what  they 
expected  to,  and  they  see  no  prospect  of  doing  better.  In  my  mind  this  problem  of  the  man 
of  ability,  well  paid  for  his  efforts  to  make  a  success,  in  a  sense  parallels  many  cases  we  find  in 
manufacturing  and  commercial  enterprises  —  men  who  never  really  succeed  in  what  they 
undertake,  but  who  are  always  ready  for  new  effort,  and  always  find  fresh  opportunities  open- 
ing up  to  them. 


These  opportunities  must  be  reckoned  among  the  possible  results  of  one's  interest  in  poultry 
as  it,  develops. 

There  are  also  other  ways  in  which  opportunities  may  come  to  successful,  or  even  to  capable 
but  not  brilliantly  successful  poultrymen. 

Some  years  ago  a  marketman,  buying  and  selling  poultry,  became  interested  in  the  produc- 
tion of  poultry.  He  began  growing  poultry  and  ducks  on  a  very  small  farm,  not  much  larger 
than  a  good  sized  village  lot.  His  successes  here  led  him  to  purchase  a  farm,  and  begin  to 
build  up  a  business  on  a  large  scale.  He  had  his  ups  and  downs,  his  business  grew,  but  he  had 
a  heavy  load  to  carry.  Sometimes  he  felt  like  giving  up  —  again,  things  looked  brighter  and 
encouraged  him  to  keep  on.  The  farm  paid,  but  did  not  pay  enough  —  he  was  not  making  as 
much  at  poultry  keeping  as  he  could  make  at  something  else.  Then  his  services  were  wanted 
by  a  manufacturing  concern  for  a  position  calling  for  a  knowledge  of  the  poultry  business 
and  a  wide  acquaintance  with  poultrymen.  In  this  new  line  he  rose  rapidly.  His  ability  and 
•character  attracted  attention  and  brought  him  an  offer  of  a  position  of  great  responsibility  with 
•commensurate  emoluments. 


68  LL5SONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SLRILS. 

A  young  man  just  out  of  college  was  ordered  by  bis  physician  to  get  into  some  outdoor 
occupation  for  a  few  years.  He  had  been  interested  in  poultry  as  a  boy,  and  concluded  to 
go  into  the  poultry  business  long  enough  to  make  a  fortune  and  retire.  In  due  course  of 
time  he  discovered  that  the  possibilities  of  wealth  in  poultry  culture  were  much  overrated,  and 
that  educational  qualifications  representing  expenditures  which  would  make  a  neat  little 
capital  were  not  at  all  essential  in  the  routine  work  'of  the  poultry  yard.  He  decided  that  he 
would  make  more  by  taking  up  a  line  of  work  more  in  keeping  with  his  educational  training, 
and  began  to  arrange  his  affairs  accordingly.  Qircumslances  diverted  him  from  the  original 
plan  and  gave  him  a  connection  with  a  poultry  paper,  starting  him  in  a  line  of  work  which  he 
found  very  congenial  and  reasonably  remunerative. 

A  farmer's  boy  interested  himself  to.  poultry,  earned  a  considerable  part  of  the  money  to 
defray  his  expenses  at  college  by  keeping  poultry,  and,  having  graduated  from  college,  con- 
tinued poultry  keeping  as  a  means  of  earning  the  wherewithal  to  pay  for  a  professional  educa- 
tion. Shortly  after  he  had  returned  to  the  farm  he  was  offered  the  position  of  manager  of  a 
large  poultry  plant.  After  a  few  years  spent  here  he  got  into  poultry  journalism,  and  is  now 
editor  of  one  of  the  papers  ranked  among  the  best.  -Even  before  his  college  days  his  contribu- 
tions on  poultry  topics  were  read  with  interest  and  profit  by  many  who  might  have  skipped 
them  had  they  known  how  few  years  the  writer  numbered.  As  another  juvenile  expert  once 
remarked  to  a  veteran  whom  he  had  bested  in  a  discussion  who  tried  to  overawe  him  with 
years  and  "  experience,"  "  Some  people  get  a  great  deal  more  experience  in  a  few  years  than 
others  do  in  a  lifetime." 


Two  physicians  in  the  same  city  became  interested  in  fancy  poultry.  Each  had  a  good  prac- 
tice. Both  took  up  poultry  for  recreation.  One  has  continued  to  keep  a  few  tine  fowls,  get- 
ting much  satisfaction  and  a  little  profit  from  them,  but  never  allowing  them  to  interfere  in 
any  way  with  his  professional  duties.  I  doubt  whether  as  much  as  one  per  cent  of  his  patients 
know  that  he  has  any  interest  in  poultry.  The  other  developed  "hen  fever"  in  a  virulent  form. 
He  crowded  his  premises  with  fowls  of  different  varieties,  making  all  sorts  of  queer  coops  and 
houses  for  them.  He  neglected  his  practice.  Patients  who  came  to  the  office  at  his  residence 
frequently  had  to  wait  while  he  attended  to  the  poultry.  Some  complained  that  he  came  to 
them  from  fche  poultry  yard  with  odors,  feathers,  or  other  evidence  of  his  having  been  in  that 
locality  still  about  his  person.  This  may  have  been  an  exaggeration.  It  is  certain,  though, 
that  he  gave  many  patients  the  impression  of  being  more  interested  in  bis  fowls  than  in  their 
ailments.  This  was  a  fatal  error.  The  ailing  man  or  woman  is  of  all  persons  most  resentful 
of  any  lack  of  concern  for  their  welfare —  especially  in  one  to  whom  they  come  for  healing. 
His  practice  began  to  fall  off.  As  his  income  dwindled,  instead  of  taking  steps  to  reestablish 
himself  in  his  profession,  he  began  to  think  of  his  poultry  as  a  possible  source  of  income.  The 
last  I  knew  of  him  he  was  still  struggling  to  make  poultry  pay,  and  of  his  once  fine  practice 
little  was  left. 


A  master  mechanic  in  a  New  England  city  has  been  identified  with  a  certain  breed  of  fowls 
for,  I  think,  nearly  forty  years.  He  breeds  a  hundred  or  two  every  year,  and  makes  two  or 
three  hundred  dollars  on  them,  without  letting  his  poultry  interests  interfere  with  his  regular 
business.  He  visits  a  few  of  the  best  shows  every  season  for  a  day  or  for  several  days,  as 
business  cares  permit.  He  meets  a  number  of  men  interested  in  his  fancy,  competes  with  them 
in  the  shows,  and  enjoys  their  company.  His  sales  of  eggs  and  stock  keeps  him  in  correspond- 
ence with  people  all  over  the  country.  His  poultry  is  a  profitable  and  pleasant  diversion. 

A/;ity  newspaper  man  interested  in  poultry  started  a  poultry  farm  in  a  small  way,  and, 
quite  naturally,  as  he  learned  more  and  more  of  poultry  culture  began  to  disseminate  his 
knowledge  through  such  channels  as  were  available.  In  one  of  these  channels  he  found  an 
opportunity  for  a  special  engagement  out  of  which  grew  one  of  the  leading  poultry  journals  of 
the  period.  His  connection  with  this  and  subsequently  with  other  poultry  journals,  and  work 
as  a  poultry  lecturer  have  been  combined  with  poultry  keeping  with  results  as  to  income  which 
are  apparently  good  enough  to  keep  him  from  returning  to  regular  newspaper  work. 


A  MAN  WHO   FOUND   HLALTH   AND  COMPLTLNCL  IN    POULTRY.       69 

A  printer,  a  young  man  whose  health  was  far  from  robust,  had  to  leave  the  office  in  the 
city  and  return  to  the  farm.  There  the  cafe  of  poultry  was  assigned  him  as  "  light  work,'- 
most  suitable  for  one  in  his  condition.  He  became  interested  enough  to  leave  the  farm  and 
go  to  work  for  one  of  the  leading  poultrymen.  Continuing  with  him  for  several  years  he 
became  proficient  both  as  a  poultryman  and  a  fancier,  and  embarked  in  the  business  for  him- 
self. He  soon  made  a  reputation  as  a  breeder.  It  occurred  to  him  that  an  article  he  was 
making  for  u^e  in  his  own  yards  would  sell  well  to  poultrymen  generally.  He  began  to  adver- 
tise it,  and  soon  his  trade  in  it  called  for  the  erection  of  a  factory.  In  a  few  years  more  he  bad 
a  large  and  profitable  business  in  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  an  article  of  a  kind  used  in  every 
poultry  yard. 

A  mechanic,  who  was  probably  born  a  fancier,  has  but  a  small  back  yard  in  which  to  keep 
fowls.  He  can  keep  but  a  very  few,  and  can  raise  chickens  only  with  such  difficulty  that  he 
prefers  not  to  try  to  grow  them  at  all.  His  method  of  handling  poultry  is  rather  unique. 
"When  he  sees  an  opportunity  to  buy  a  small  lot  of  nice  fowls  cheap, from  someone  who  is  going 
out  of  them,  he  buys.  These  fowls  he  keeps  until  a  customer  comes  along  who  will  pay  a  good 
price  for  them.  Then  he  sells,  and  his  yard  is  empt^v  until  another  opportunity  to  buy  low 
occurs.  He  has  told  me  that  he  frequently  has  three  or  four  different  kinds  of  fowls  in  a  year, 
though  no  two  kinds  at  the  same  time,  and  that  he  makes  much  more  in  this  way  than  he 
could  by  breeding  or  keeping  one  lot  of  fowls  permanently  in  his  narrow  premises. 


I  could  go  on  indefinitely,  multiplying  illustrations  of  what  people  have  done  and  are  doing 
with  poultry.  The  most  common  type — the  farm  poultry  keeper — has  hardly  been  men- 
tioned. The  illustrations  given  nearly  all  refer  to  specialists  of  various  kinds  and  grades  —  to 
people  who  go  into  poultry  keeping.  On  the  farms  generally,  poultry  is  kept  as  a  matter  of 
course,  but  as  we  consider  the  possible  results  from  poultry  in  the  succeeding  section  there  will 
be  occasion  to  say  more  of  farm  conditions  and  possibilities. 


70  LL55ON5  IN    POULTRY   KE.LPING  —  SECOND  5ERIE.S. 


LESSON     VI. 


SECTION     III. 


Branches  of  Poultry  Culture  and  Classes  of  Poultry  Keepers  Con= 

sidered  in  Their  Relation  to   Prospective  Poultry 

Keepers*  Expectations  of  Success. 


THAT  is  a  longer  title  than  I  am  in  the  habit  of  making,  but  nothing  shorter  seemed  to 
answer  the  purpose.    I  want  to  tell  the  reader  —  and  particularly  the  reader  inter- 
ested in  the  possibilities  of  poultry  culture  for  pleasure  and  profit,  or  for  that  com- 
bination of  pleasure  and  profit  which  the  great  majority  are  seeking,  what  poultry 
culture  offers  him,  the  conditions  which  it  imposes,  and  the  limits  of  different  branches  and 
limitations  of  various  individuals. 

Poultrymen  have  to  deal  with  four  principal  classes  of  domestic  fowls,  chickens,  turkeysr 
ducks,  and  geese.  The  first  class  mentioned  are  o£  many  times  more  commercial  importance 
than  the  other  three  combined. 

What  Poultry  Culture  Offers  the  Farmer. 

The  great  bulk  of  our  poultry  products  comes  from  farms  where  they  are  produced  under 
conditions  which  make  the  receipts  for  them  practically  all  profit.  This  being  the  case  it  is 
not  often  that  an  exclusive  poultry  business  can  be  conducted  profitably  in  any  section  where 
the  farms  produce  more  eggs  and  poultry  than  will  supply  the  local  markets. 

And  in  these  sections  where  exclusive  poultry  farms  are  rarely  successful,  it  is  not  generally 
advisable  for  farmers  to  go  into  market  poultry  culture  on  a  scale  that  requires  them  to  give 
any  considerable  part  of  their  time  to  poultry,  or  that  makes  poultry  culture  more  than  a 
minor  feature  of  their  farm  work.  But  between  the  conditions  in  which  poultry  is  usually 
kept  on  a  farm  and  the  limits  I  have  indicated,  there  is  a  difference  which  leaves  room  for  con- 
siderable enlargement  of  farm  flocks  and  improvement  of  farm  methods,  and  a  considerable 
increase  of  receipts,  and  consequently  of  profits,  from  poultry  without  its  encroaching  on 
either  time  or  land  which  might  more  profitably  be  devoted  to  other  uses.  On  most  farms  the 
best  policy  to  pursue  in  developing  the  poultry  interests  of  the  farm  is  simply  to  make  the 
most  of  farm 'advantages  by  farm  methods.  The  best  way  to  go  about  this  is  indicated  in  the 
stories  of  the  several  farmers  who  developed  as  poultrymen.  It  is  a  mistake  for  a  farmer,  or 
any  one  else  whose  interest  in  poultry  is  just  beginning,  to  undertake  to  plan  for  a  poultry  busi- 
ness on  an  extensive  scale.  The  wise  way  is  to  extend  and  increase  operations  year  by  year,, 
little  by  little,  as  results  and  experience  indicate  the  most  profitable  lines  to  follow. 

Ordinary  poultry  keeping  on  the  farm  includes,  almost  universally,  the  maintenance  of  a  flock 
of  laying  hens,  varying  in  numbers  from  a  few  dozen  to  several  hundred,  and  the  rearing  each 
season  of  as  many  chickens  as  can  be  conveniently  taken  care  of.  On  most  farms  no  special 
attention  is  given  to  the  production  of  eggs  and  poultry  for  the  seasons  of  scarcity  and  period* 
of  high  prices. 

The  profits  from  the  poultry  on  such  a  farm  may,  in  nearly  every  instance,  be  much  increased 
by  keeping  better  sfock,  by  more  careful  selection  of  breeding  stock,  by  disposing  of  poultry 
either  before  or  after  the  seasons  when  most  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  disposing  of  their 


NO  LARGE.  INDUCEMENTS   FOR  THOSL  DOING  WLLL.  71 

surplus,  and  in  a  general  way  by  taking  precautions  to  avoid  the  losses  which  often  gre;.tly 
reduce  the  stocks  of  fowls  and  flocks  of  chickens.  Along  these  lines  of  saving  and  judicious 
handling  there  are  good  opportunities  for  greater  profits  with  little  additional  expense  —  some- 
times with  no  increase  of  cost  whatever. 

Beyond  this,  the  farmer  may  go  into  any  of  the  special  branches  of  poultry  culture  as  far  as» 
circumstances,  inclination,  and  experience  take  him.  He  as  well  as  another  may  be  a  fancier, 
breeder,  and  exhibitor  of  fine  fowls.  His  opportunities  for  producing  them  are  second  to 
none,  and  as  they  are  sold  principally  through  mail  orders,  location  cuts  very  little  figure  in 
that  line  of  the  business.  He  may  grow  broilers,  or  raise  winter  chickens  for  roasters,  if  hi* 
location  favors,  and  other  demands  on  his  time  permit.  He  may  also  combine,  as  only  those 
located  on  farms  can,  the  growing  of  the  several  kinds  of  domestic  fowls,  and  keep  in  addition 
to  his  chickens,  flocks  of  turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese. 

The  farmer  who  becomes  interested  in  poultry  will  see  possibilities  of  profit  in  all  these  line*. 
If  he  develops  in  any  direction  slowly  he  avoids  making  serious  ami  expensive  mistake-.. 
People  often  write  me  for  instruction  as  to  the  best  way  to  begin,  to  avoid  mistakes,  saying  :  — 
"  I  have  only  a  small  capital,  and  I  must  start  right,  t  cannot  afford  to  make  any  mistakes." 

It  is  not  possible  to  altogether  avoid  mistakes,  but  there  is  one  sure  way  of  avoiding  bad  mis- 
takes, and  expensive  mistakes,  and  that  way  is  well  stated  in  the  old  maxim,  "  hasten  slowh  .'' 
If  one  observes  that  rule  he  finds  his  knowledge  of  poultry  and  his  capacity  and  skill  in  man- 
aging it  growing  as  his  stock  increases,  and  though  his  mistakes  may  temporarily  hinder  him  at 
times  they  are  not  likely  to  cause  his  failure. 

What  Poultry  Culture  Offers  Those  in  Other  Occupations. 

It  may  safely  be  put  down  as  :t  general  rule  that  a  person  who  has  a  business  or  occupation 
in  which  he  is  making  a  living  ought  not  to  change  abruptly  to  a  line  of  which  he  knows  noth- 
ing, and  in  whi^h  his  prospects  are  uncertain.  Yet  I  suppose  that  at  least  three-fifths  of  tho-e 
who  come  or  write  to  me  to  ask  how  they  can  get  started  in  poultry  keeping  belong  to  this  class. 
They  are  for  the  most  part  persons  who  are  dissatisfied  with  their  present  occupation,  ai.ci 
chafing  under  its  unpleasant  feature!*.  Their  interest  in  poultry  commonly  springs  from 
impressions  of  it  derived  from  hearsay  or  from  occasional  extravagant  references  to  it  jn 
newspapers.  Almost  invariably  they  regard  it  as  a  business  singularly  free  from  drawbacks 
and  holding  possibilities  of  big  incomes  made  by  the  hens,  while  the  keeper  takes  it  easy.  They 
also  believe  that  a  poultry  business  large  enough  to  give  them  a  living  income  can  be  built  up  in 
a  few  months  on  a  capital  that  would  be  too  small  to  be  of  any  use  in  most  lines  of  business. 
This  belief  is  so  diligently  fostered  by  the  poultry  press,  by  poultry  writers  in  agricultun  I 
papers,  and  by  those  interested  in  the  sale  of  equipments  and  supplies  for  poultnrnen  that  it 
becomes  a  very  hard  matter  to  convince  a  man  once  imbued  with  it  that  it  is  wronir. 

Unless  one  is  so  situated  that  he  or  some  member  of  his  family  equally  interested  in  poultry 
can  give  the  flock  all  necessary  attention,  and  can  both  increase  the  flock,  and  constantly 
increase  the  time  given  it  as  the  growth  of  the  flock  calls  for  more  and  more  oj  the  keeper's 
time,  it  is  quite  useless  to  make  a  start  with  a  small  flock  with  the  expectation  of  gradually 
developing.  To  do  ?o  is  like  planting  a  tree  in  a  sp-ice  which  will  be  ample  for  only  a  few 
years.  When  the  tree  out-rows  the  space  it  is  an  incumbrance.  And  that  is  very  apt  to  1  e 
the  case  with  a  poultry  business  started  under  conditions  which  limit  its  development  loi  g 
before  it  has  reached  the  point  where  the  proprietor  is  justified  in  making  it  of  first  importatu  e. 

Poultry  culture  has  no  encouraging  offers  to. make  the  man  already  established  in  something 
else,  doing  reasonably  well  in  it,  and  not  under  necessity  of  making  some  ch:inge.  In  almo- 1 
every  case  where  people  quit  other  employment  to  engage  in  and  learn  poultry  keeping  tin  y 
soon  find  that  they  have  made  a  mistake.  It  might  not  be  so,  if  they  were  willing  to  learn  the 
poultry  business  before  going  into  it,  but  nearly  all  of  them  are  unwilling  to  take  a  thorough 
training.  Almost  as  often  as  I  suggest  this  course  to  an  inquirer  or  correspondent  the  reply 
is:—'*  I  don't  want  to  do  that.  I  learned  my  present  business  that  way  years  ago.  I  am  too 
old  to  do  it  that  way.  I  can't  afford  to  t:ike  the  time.  C;t:i*t  I  just  begin  and  learn  poultry 
keeping  by  keeping  poultry?  Doesn't  my  training  in  the  other  line  count  for  anything  in  this?* 

The  reply  is :— One  can  learn  poultry  keeping  by  engaging  in  it  on  bis  own  account,  and  pay- 


72  LL55ONS   IN   POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SECOND  5LRIL5. 

ing  for  all  his  experience  as  he  goes,  but  it  is  the  most  expensive  way  to  learn,  and  also  the 
most  discouraging,  and  where  one  persists  and  makes  a  success  scores  give  up  either  from  dis- 
couragement or  lack  of  funds.  Even  with  plenty  of  capital  it  usually  takes  three  or  four  years 
to  get  a  poultry  plant  started  this  way  in  running  order  and  netting  anything  above  expenses. 
A  man  who  knows  the  business  may  begin  with  only  a  few  hundred  dollars,  a  good  reputation, 
and  good  .credit.,  and  by  hard  work  and  the  most  rigid  economy,  boih  on  the  plant  and  in  the 
household,  may  get  along  and  ahead,  but  it  is  not  an  easy  road  to  affluence. 

What    Poultry    Keeping    Offers    Those    For    Whom    a    Change  of 
Occupation  is  Desirable. 

To  a  great  many  people  engaged  in  occupations  injurious  to  their  health,  or  utterly  distaste- 
ful to  them,  or  in  which  compensation  is  small,  and  chances  of  advancement  smaller,  poultry 
culture  seems  to  offer  a  way  of  bettering  themselves.  Yet  I  have  found  comparatively  few, 
ever,  of  these,  who  were  willing  to  work  themselves  into  the  business  in  ways  that  gave  reason- 
able assurance  or  their  being  able  to  continue  in  it  permanently.  The  bane  of  the  poultry  busi- 
ness seems  to  be  the  desire  of  everyone  starting  in  it  to  "boss,"'  to  be  his  own  boss  if  possible, 
if  not  to  secure  a  position  as  manager  and  ''boss"  for  someone  else. 

There  are  many  poultrymen  in  the  business,  making  livings  of  all  grades,  from  a  bare  sub- 
sistence to  comfortable  independence  and  a  bank  balance  that  shows  a  gratifying  increase 
nearly  every  year,  who  got  into  it  from  one  of  the  classes  we  are  now  considering;  but  so  far 
as  I  have  known  them  they  have  worked  into  poultry  culture  gradually.  Either  they  went  to 
work  for  poultrymen  and  learned  the  business  thoroughly,  or  they  found  it  possible  to  build  up 
their  stock  of  poultry  in  the  days  and  hours  which  had  they  had  only  their  other  occupation 
would  have  been  idle.  In  a  great  many  instances,  too,  the  help  of  one  or  more  of  the  other 
anembers  of  the  family  has  been  an  important  factor.  Perhaps  the  most  common  case  is  where 
a  wife  equally  interested  with  her  husband  looks  after  the  poultry  when  he  is  unable  to  do  so. 
Occasionally  —  perhaps  I  should  say  often  —  the  wife  is  the  better  poultry  keeper,  and  better 
inanager  of  the  two,  though  rather  averse  to  being  known  to  the  world  as  the  head  of  the  con- 
cern. In  most  instances  where  women  successfully  carry  on  a  poultry  business  in  their  own 
name  the  male  members  of  the  family  give  such  assistance  as  they  can,  though  occasionally  a 
woman  is  left  entirely  dependent  upon  her  own  efforts  and  such  help  as  she  may  hirf. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  to  make  a  satisfactory  exchange  from  some  other  line  into 
poultry  keeping  requires  exceptional  conditions.  Many  who  would  like  to  do  so  cannot,  and 
>ome  who  would  be  better  for  the  change  could  it  be  effected  find  it  impossible.  It  should  be 
*aid  also  with  reference  to  poultry  culture  as  a  business  for  those  not  in  robust  health  that  their 
adaptability  to  it  will  depend  more  on  whether  they  can  stand  steady  work  and  exposure  than 
Jipon  ability  to  do  hard  work.  A  poultry  keeper  must  be  about  in  all  weathers.  He  may 
tn  range  his  plant  to  make  his  labor  as  light  as  possible,  and  to  have  everything  adapted  to  the 
comfort  of  fowls  and  chicks;  but  still  occasions  will  arise  when  in  heat,  or  cold,  wind,  rain,  or 
snow  he  must  get  about  and  look  after  his  stock,  and  if  he  cannot  stand  such  exposure,  and 
Cannot  occasionally  work  long  hours  he  had  belter  not  go  deeply  into  poultry  keeping.  In 
j*ome  diseases  long  hours  and  exposure  are  not  injurious,  provided  there  is  not  too  much  over- 
time, and  one  takes  proper  c?<re  of  himself  after  exposure,  and  in  such  cases  poultry  keeping 
may  be  unexcelled  as  a  health  >.2Storer.  The  great  thing  is  to  keep  the  business  within  the 
limits  which  will  not  make  it  too  great  a  burden. 

What    Poultry  Keeping    Offers    Those    With    Money    to   Invest    or 

Land   to    Occupy. 

Under  this  heading  we  consider  poultry  culture  as  an  investment  for  men  who  do  not  intend 
to  give  their  poultry  plants  their  personal  supervision,  or  who  plan  to  hire  an  expert  to  run 
the  business  until  under  his  instructions  they  become  qualified  to  manage  it  for  themselves. 

A  great  many  people  every  year  contemplate  poultry  culture  seriously  from  this  point  of 
view.  Men  with  money  to  invest,  having  heard  reports  of  large  profits  from  poultry,  imagine 
that  by  investing  money  in  a  poultry  farm  they  can  have  their  money  pay  them  ten  or  twelve 


POULTRY  KEEPING  A5    AN   INVESTMENT.  73 

per  cent,  or  even  more.  Men  with  unproductive  lan-d  which  they  are  not  able  or  qualified  to 
handle  profitably  often  think  that  by  forming  some  sort  of  partnership  arrangement  with  a 
poultry  farmer  they  can  get  an  income  from  the  laud. 

All  these  schemes  presuppose  a  profit  on  poultry  large  enough  to  yield  the  owner  of  the  laud, 
or  the  plant,  better  returns  than  he  would  be  likely  to  get  on  any  other  investment  of  his 
money,  or  use  of  his  land.  As  far  as  I  am  able  to  learn,  no  arrangement  of  this  kind  has  ever 
been  satisfactory  —  no  investment  in  a  poultry  plant  managed  by  another  for  a  man  who  knew 
nothing  of  the  business,  has  ever  been  profitable,  and  no  poultry  plant  established  on  a  large 
scale,  as  an  investment,  has  ever  been  run  at  a  profit.  There  may  be  instances  which  con- 
stitute exceptions  to  these  statements,  but  I  do  not  know  of  them.  I  do  know  of  large  plants 
started  on  a  large  scale,  which  those  interested  in  them  claim  are  paying,  but  I  know  of  no 
such  farm  in  which  the  statements  that  have  been  given  out  as  proof  establish  the  claims  made. 
I  do  not  know  of  a  single  large  poultry  plant  in  profitable  operation  except  such  as  have  been 
built  up  gradually  from  small  beginnings  by  men  who  were  trained  poultrymen,  most  of  them 
acquiring  their  training  on  their  own  plants,  and  conducting  them  for  some  years  at  first  on  a 
very  small  scale. 

The  great  obstacle  to  the  development  of  plants  of  this  character  is  the  difficulty  of  securing 
competent  managers.  As  indicated  in  one  of  the  sketches  of  successful  poultrymeu  in  the 
preceding  section  of  this  chapter,  men  who  have  the  executive  and  commercial  ability  required 
for  the  successful  management  of  large  poultry  plants  can  usually  get  larger  returns  at  some- 
thing else.  Men  who  are  equal  only  to  the  management  of  a  "one  man  plant"  almost  always 
prefer  to  work  for  themselves,  or  to  take  charge  of  plants  on  which  they  are  not  expected  to 
ilo  the  impossible. 

It  may  be  that  the  time  will  come  when  poultry  plants  will  be  satisfactory  as  an  investment, 
and  when  men  with  unoccupied  land  can  hire  it  advantageously  to  poultrymeu.  It  may  be 
that  in  the  many  failures  of  attempts  to  do  these  things  we  are  gradually  working  out  methods, 
training  men,  and  approaching  conditions  which  will  make  these  things  possible,  but  as  I  see 
the  factf*  today  I  could  not  offer  any  great  encouragement  to  those  who  looked  to  poultry 
culture  as  an  investment  for  their  funds,  or  a  use  of  their  land,  unless  they  were  competent 
them^eives  to  manage  the  venture. 

What    Poultry   Keeping   Offers   in  Salaried  Positions  and  Wages. 

The  best  paid  salaried  poultrymen  are  fanciers  of  much  more  than  common  ability  as  breed- 
ers and  exhibitors.  They  are  few  in  number,  and,  as  I  can  place  them  now  in  my  mind,  are 
all  employed  by  well  to  do  fanciers  who  cannot  personally  manage  their  plants  and  attend  to 
their  exhibits.  By  that  1  mean  cannot  for  any  reason,  including  more  important  demands  as 
well  as  inability.  Not  a  few  men  of  means  in  the  fancy  are  men  whose  judgment  and  skill, 
while  not  perhaps  equal  to  that  of  those  who  devote  all  their  attention  to  poultry,  are  still  of 
first  rate  quality.  In  fact  it  seems  to  be  impossible  for  the  first  rate  men  in  salaried  positions 
to  be  satisfied  in  the  employ  of  men  who  are  not  keen  fanciers.  In  these  positions  men  com- 
mand salaries  from  about  $1,000  a  year  to  $1,500  year,  with  possibly  one  or  two  going  above  the 
latter  figure.  In  most  cases  men  in  these  positions  can  earn  something  extra  as  judges  or  in 
other  ways  in  line  with  their  opportunities. 

There  is  a  considerable  demand  for  managers  of  market  poultry  plants,  generally  at  a  much 
lower  range  of  salaries.  The  equivalent  of  $100  per  month  is  about  as  high  as  these  salaries 
go.  In  a  few  instances  higher  salaries  have  been  paid,  but  such  engagements  have  rarely  con- 
tinued beyond  the  limit  of  the  original  contract.  The  average  amount  paid  a  man  able  to 
handle  a  poultry  plant  of  one  or  two  man  capacity  is  about  $75  per  month.  Good  men  in 
subordinate  positions  get  $40  to  $50  per  month. 

The  poultrymau's  opportunities,  however,  are  not  limited  to  employment  on  poultry  farms. 
There  is  an  ever  increasing  demand  for  men  having  a  practical  knowledge  of  poultry  culture, 
for  places  in  all  lines  of  business  dealing  with  poultrymen,  and  a  good  many  men  who  have 
not  been  able  to  make  money  with  poultry  in  the  ways  they  had  originally  planned,  are  finding 
their  acquirements  useful  in  these  collateral  lines.  Not  only  so,  but  to  many  who  have  made  a 
good  deal  of  a  success  in  poultry  culture,  these  lines  offer  more  profitable  openings. 


74  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  5LCOND  SLRIEA 

Hence,  while  the  wages  paid  the  poultryman  at  the  start  are  not  especially  attractive,  there 
are  in  poultry  culture  such  opportunities  for  advancement  to  responsible  and  lucrative  position** 
as  open  in  every  line  to  those  who  are  competent,  reliable,  and  industrious. 

What    Poultry    Keeping   Offers   in   Recreation. 

American  poultry  fanciers  and  breeders,  as  a  class,  try  to  combine  pleasure  and  profit  in 
poultry  culture,  but  we  will  consider  here  the  pleasurable  aspects  of  poultry  keeping  only, 
passing  the  connection  with  profit  with  the  remark  that  those  who  went  into  the  poultry  fancy 
for.pleasure  have  again  and  again  found  it  at  some  time  their  chief  or  sole  reliance  as  a  means 
of  livelihood,  and  been  able  to  make  a  very  good  living  at  it. 

The  simplest  pleasure  poultry  keeping  affords  is  found  in  the  production  of  eggs  and  poultry 
for  the  family  table.  The  desire  to  have  poultry  grown  on  the  premises,  and  known  to  be 
well  fed  and  fresh  when  used  for  the  table,  and  to  have  strictly  fresh  eggs  as  wanted,  seems  to 
be  responsible  for  most  beginnings  in  poultry  keeping  in  town  and  cities.  The  pleasure  this 
affords  usually  bears  a  direct  relation  to  the  results  obtained.  Very  often  it  leads  directly  to 
the  higher  forms  of  pleasurable  poultry  culture.  Of  these  we  may  consider  here  the  few 
principal  ones. 

There  is  h'rst  of  all  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  possession  of  fine  fowls.  From  this  there 
comes  naturally  the  desire  to  produce  tine  fowls,  and  a  keener  pleasure  in  the  sense  of  skill 
which  comes  with  successful  accomplishment  in  this  direction.  Manv  are  satisfied  to  stop 
here.  To  others  possession  and  skill  suggest  competition,  and  their  keenest  pleasure  is  derived 
from  successes  in  the  exhibition  room,  which  give  them  reputatron  varying  from  local  to  world 
wide  according  to  the  sphere  in  which  they  compete  and  the  frequency  of  their  successes. 

To  achieve  these  successes  someone  has  to  exercise  rare  artistic  and  creative  skill  and  judg- 
ment, and  I  think  it  may  be  said  that  our  poultry  fanciers  today  quite  outclass  breeders  in  till 
other  lines  of  live  stock  in  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  breeding  and  in  skill  in  their  applica- 
tion. The  man  who  goes  into  the  fancy  today  finds  himself  pitted  against  combinations  of  art, 
skill,  and  judgment  which  tax  bis  faculties  to  their  utmost.  He  finds  himself  also  brought  into 
contact  with  men  in  all  relations  in  life  who  meet  on  the  common  ground  of  their  interest  in 
poultry,  and  he  finds  that  the  peculiar  combination  of  qualities  which  make  the  fancier  are  not 
tiie,  exclusive  possession  of  any  class  of  men  or  character  of  intellect. 

I  think  that  fanciers  generally  will  agree  that  the  frankly  democratic  equality  of  the  poultry 
show  is  refreshing.  Even  those  who  in  their  social  and  business  relations  are  disposed  to  be 
exclusive  rarely  display  any  of  that  spirit  in  the  show  room.  On  the  contrary  most  of  them 
seem  to  be  able  to  meet  every  other  fancier  on  terms  of  equality,  and  it  is  a  rare  thing  to  see 
any  traces  of  either  snobbishness  or  obsequiousness  in  the  intercourse  of  poultrymen. 

In  Conclusion. 

Tn  conclusion,  let  me  remark  what  no  doubt  more  than  one  reader  has  reflected  for  himself, 
that  poultry  keeping  offers  a  very  wide  range  of  possibilities.  And  let  me  add,  and  impress  it 
upon  the  reader,  that  while  the  possibilities  of  what  he  may  get  are  in  the  business,  the  prob- 
abilities of  what  he  will  get  are  in  himself,  and  to  some  extent  in  his  circumstances.  The 
making  of  a  competent  and  skillful  poultryman  is  a  slow  process.  When  a  very  young  man 
fills  those  specifications  it  will  almost  invariably  be  found  that  his  poultry  culture  began  in 
childhood  and  represents  years  of  interest  and  application.  When  a  man's  interest  in  poultry 
does  not  antedate  his  mature  years  his  knowledge  of  poultry  is  almost  always  deficient  in  some 
essentials  —  often  strikingly  so,  yet  by  persistent  application  he  may  work  out  success  in  spite 
of  his  limitations.  For  men  somewhat  advanced  in  years  the  outcome  of  a  venture  into  poultry 
keeping  is  so  uncertain  that  I  have  never  been  able  to  see  how  I  could  conscientiously  advise 
such  to  go  into  it.  The  prospects  of  their  making  a  success  of  it  are,  on  the  whole,  too  remote 
to  warrant  the  investment  and  the  effort.  Men  who  have  passed  the  age  when  they  can  obtain 
new  positions  in  the  lines  in  which  they  have  been  engaged  are  constantly  investigating  poultry 
culture,  and  looking  for  encouragement  to  take  it  up.  For  men  who  have  had  an  interest  in 
poultry  which  by  gradual  extension  may  develop  into  an  understanding  of  it  having  com- 
mercial value  it  may  be  worth  while  to  try  what  they  can  do,  but  I  am  not  able  to  recall  a 
single  instance  of  a  man  advanced  in  years  taking  up  poultry  culture  and  making  a  success  of  it. 


LOCATING  AND  LAYING  OUT  POULTRY  PLANTS.  73 


LESSON  vir . 


Locating    and    Laying    Out    Poultry   Plants, 


THE  owner  of  a  piece  of  land  upon  which  he  wishes  to  engage  in  poultry  keeping  ha» 
to  adapt  the  business  to  his  location,  markets,  and  his  own  ability.  He  makes  his 
business  fit  his  conditions  as  he  understands  them.  If  his  ability  and  experience 
are  small  he  may  make  many  mistakes,  and  he  is  likely  to  make  some  mistakes,  no 
matter  bow  able  or  expert. 

The  mistakes  people  make  in  locating  and  laying  out  their  plants  vary  both  in  kind  and 
In  degree.  There  are  mistakes  that  make  success  impossible.  Of  this  kind  is  the  common 
error  of  buying  land  that  is  of  a  nature  unsuitable  for  poultry  keeping,  or  so  located  that 
extra  expenses,  due  to  location,  eat  into  the  profits  to  such  an  extent  that  the  net  returns  are 
reduced  below  the  lowest  figure  at  which  it  is  possible  to  maintain  operations.  In  the  earlier 
days  of  interest  in  poultry  culture  as  a  means  of  livelihood,  the  idea  was  land  unsuitable  for 
any  other  purpose  was  just  what  was  wanted  for  fowls.  Those  who  bought  on  that  principle 
have  had  cause  to  regret  it.  From  as  far  back  as  our  poultry  literature  goes  it  has  also  been 
customary  for  most  authorities  on  poultry  culture  to  advocate  sandy  and  porous  soils  that 
were  drained  well;  and  a  site  with  a  southerly  or  southeasterly  exposure  was  considered 
preferable.  Nowadays  poultrymen  are  not  quite  as  particular  about  those  points,  though  they 
do  not  wish  to  get  too  far  away  from  them  —  particularly  when  arranging  winter  quarters 
lor  laying  stock. 

As  is  so  often  the  case,  when  these  points  of  location  were  insisted  upon  as  cardinal  points 
there  was  a  general  tendency  to  try  to  secure  them,  even  at  the  expense  of  other  desirable 
features.  As  a  result  of  this,  a  great  many  poultrymen  have  located  in  places  where  they  had 
to  contend  with  a  multitude  of  other  adverse  conditions  as  well  as  with  the  faults  of  locations 
which  would  always  be  dry. 

For  best  results  most  easily  secured  a  medium  soil  is  to  be  preferred.  Perhaps  the  ideal 
location  is  one  which  gives  a  high  and  well  drained  site  for  the  poultry  buildings,  but  with  adja- 
cent low  land  that  remains  moist  through  the  dryest  and  hottest  summers,  to  which  the  runs 
may  be  extended.  A  sandy  soil  that  cannot  be  kept  in  sod  becomes  intensely  hot  on  hot  sum- 
mer days,  and  fowls  and  chicks  confined  to  such  a  location  cannot  thrive.  This  has  been  one 
reason  for  poor  summer  laying  and  for  difficulty  in  growing  late  chickens  on  many  poultry 

plants. 

Another  point  given  more  consideration  of  late  years  is  the  adaptability  of  the  land  for 
cultivation.  Good  grass  or  tillage  land  is  usually  good  land  for  poultry.  Not  infrequently 
poultry  will  pay  better  on  It  than  any  other  crop  that  could  be  grown.  There  !s  the  further 
advantage  in  the  use  of  such  land  for  poultry  that  the  poultry  running  on  the  land  enrich  it, 
and  when  the  land  by  use  for  poultry  becomes  contaminated  the  poultry  can  be  shifted  to 
another  part  of  the  farm,  and  this  will  grow  extra  fine  crops  while  being  renovated.  As  far  as 
I  have  discussed  the  matter  with  them— and  I  have  talked  of  it  with  a  great  many  poultrymen 
— I  have  found  no  man  located  on  a  farm  with  little  tillage  land  who  would  choose  such  a  place 


76  LL55ONS  IN    POULTRY   KEEPING  —  3ECOND  SERIES. 

\ 


Plot   of  Original   Grooe  Hill  Poultry    Yards. 
Scale,   1-80  imh  to  the  foot;  1-16  inch  equal8  5  feet. 

A,  continuous  house  with  walk  ;  K.  cook  and  feed  room,  office  above;  R,  open  shed  for  storage;  C,  surplus 
stock  house;  P,  approach  to  house  A ;  B,  cockerel  and  surplus  slock  house;  M  and  T,  large  yards;  Z,  small 
yard  for  clficks;  Y.  bins  for  manure  aud  refuse;  small  oblong  figures  iu  T,  Z,  and  in  the  field  to  left  of  street, 
indicate  roosting  coops. 

again,  and  none  keeping  poultry  on  good  farming  and  garden  land  who  would  take  land  for  a 
poultry  farm  which  could  not  also  be  developed  for  grass,  grain,  and  vegetable  crops.  I  do  not 
advise  a  beginner  in  poultry  culture  who  knows  little  or  nothing  of  farming  or  gardening  to 
purchase  land  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation.  I  do  urge  him  to  purchase  land  capable  of  being 
brought  to  a  high  state  of  cultivation. 

The  selection  of  a  place  to  establish  a  poultry  farm  is  usually  a  tedious  process.  There  are  so 
many  points  to  consider  that  not  a  few  soon  begin  to  despair  of  ever  getting  what  will  suit 
them,  buy  places  they  do  not  really  want,  and  begin  to  adapt  their  business  to  the  farm.  Only 
a  very  small  proportion  of  the  properties  offered  as  poultry  farms  or  farms  suitable  for  poultry 
farming  are  desirable.  Those  offered  cheap  almost  invariably  have  some  very  pronounced 
'•outs"  about  them.  They  are  hard  to  get  to,  or  in  undesirable  neighborhoods.  In  general  they 
fall  very  far  short  of  the  advertised  descriptions  in  every  way.  But  there  are  here  and  there 
properties  most  satisfactory  for  poultry  farming  which  may  be  bought  at  reasonable  to  low 
prices.  The  finding  of  one  of  them  may  take  months,  or  it  may  take  several  years.  As  a  rule 
it  is  best  not  to  buy  until  one  finds  a  place  that  he  is  sure  will  be  quite  satisfactory.  This  may 
mean  a  postponement  of  the  undertaking,  but  as  most  of  those  going  into  poultry  keeping 
expect  to  stay  in  it,  it  is  better  to  put  off  the  beginning  until  a  satisfactory  place  is  found  than 
to  equip  a  plant  on  a  farm  with  which  the  owner  is  never  satisfied. 


SOME.   MODLL  PLANT5. 


77 


A  farm  to  be  well  adapted  to  market  poultry  keeping  should  be  not  more  than  a  few  miles 
from  a  station  that  has  a  good  express  service  to  a  good  poultry  market.  If  there  is  also  a 
good  local  market,  so  much  the  better;  but  don't  rely  too  much  on  a  local  market  that  has  no 
convenient  outlet  to  a  large  market,  for  such  a  market  may  at  any  time  become  glutted  with 
poultry  products  and  continue  so  simply  by  a  slight  permanent  increase  in  local  production. 

A  farm  for  poultry  should  also  be  of  such  proportions  that  the  fowls  may  range  widely 
without  encroaching  on  the  premises  of  neighbors,  or,  at  least  without  trespassing  where  their 
presence  would  be  objectionable.  It  is  desirable  that  it  should  have  abundance  of  shader 
perferably  orchard  trees  which  may  be  expected  to  add  something  to  the  Income,  but  groves 
and  thickets  serve  the  purpose  as  far  as  the  fowls  are  concerned  provided  there  is  not  too  much 
wood  or  brush  in  the  vicinity  affording  harbor  for  wild  animals  which  prey  on  poultry.  The 
advantage  of  shade  already  on  the  farm  is  that  it  provides  at  once  good  summer  conditions  for 
both  fowls  and  chickens,  while  on  land  bare  of  trees  and  bushes  makeshift  shades  must  be 
provided  until  trees  or  other  natural  shade  can  be  grown,  and  the  shade  supplied  in  that  way 
rarely  makes  conditions  at  all  approaching  the  best.  What  is  usually  found  on  such  farms  is  » 


C  I  I  I  I  I  iTTl 


II 


Grove   Hill   'Poultry  'Yards   Farm   Plant. 
Scale,    1-8O  inch  to  the  foot;   1-16  incli  equals  T>  feet. 

A,  300  ft.  stock  house;  1*.  shed  at  east  end  of  same;  B,' scratching  shed  house;  C,  I),  ;<n«l  K,  cockerel  h< 


78 


LLSSON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SECOND  5LRIL5. 


GROVE.  HILL  POULTRY  YARDS.  79 

Wtle  patch  of  shade  here  and  there  in  which  the  fowls  crowd  for  shade  instead  of  dispersing  as 
they  should. 

The  land  for  a  poultry  farm  should  be  bought,  not  rented  or  leased.  In  making  this  assertion 
I  am  aware  that  there  may  be  cases  where  renting  or  leasing  is  better.  At  the  same  time  I  do 
not  think  I  have  ever  known  of  an  instance  where  it  proved  best  not  to  buy  —  that  is  not  after 
what  was  intended  or  desired  to  be  a  permanent  business  was  undertaken. 

Some    flodel    Plants  —  Grove    Hill    Poultry    Yards. 

Before  making  any  statement  of  methods,  rules  or  systems  for  lining  out  poultry  plants  I 
will  present  plots  and  descriptions  of  several  plants  which  will  serve  as  models. 

Ttie  first  is  the  plot  of  Grove  Hill  Poultry  Yards  at  Waltham,  Mass.,  which  so  far  as  buildings 
and  equipment  go  is  two  complete  plants. 

The  original  plant  is  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  and  occupies  a  part 
of  the  estate  upon  which  are  the  residences  of  Mr.  Bright  and  of  his  mother.  There  are  some 
seven  acres  in  this  estate,  half,  or  perhaps  a  little  more  of  it,  being  occupied  wholly  or  in  part 
by  the  poultry. 

The  estate  fronts  upon  Main  street,  which  is  the  thoroughfare  between  Watertown  and 
Waltbam,  Grove  street  beginning  at  Main  street  and  starting  at  right  angles  to  it,  but  later, 
taking  a  winding  course,  intersects  the  laud,  dividing  it  into  two  nearly  equal  parts.  It  is  on 
the  easterly  of  these  divisions  that  the  two  residences  and  all  the  poultry  buildings,  also  a  small 
dwelling  for  a  man,  are  located. 

The  residence  of  the  elder  Mrs.  Bright  is  at  the  corner  of  Main  and  Grove  streets,  and  at  the 
loot  of  Grove  Hill ;  that  of  Mr.  W.  E.  Bright  is  high  up  on  Grove  Hill, .which  at  the  back  makes 
quite  an  abrupt  descent.  Half  way  down  this  descent  are  the  dog  kennels.  At  the  foot  of  the 
hill  back  there  is  a  triangular  space  of  gently  sloping  land.  Here  it  is  that  the  poultry  yajds 
are  located. 

The  principal  building,  A  in  the  diagram,  is  close  to  the  foot  of  the  hill;  in  fact,  in  places  the 
hill  has  been  dug  out  a  little  for  it.  It  is  185  ft.  long,  12  ft.  wide,  except  the  central  part,  and 
contains  a  central  two  story  building  (K)  14  x  15  ft.,  used  downstairs  as  a  cook  and  feed  room, 
and  upstairs  as  an  office;  and  two  wings,  one  08  ft.  long,  containing  12  pens,  and  one  72  feet 
long,  containing  9  pens.  This  building  faces  southeast.  It  is  lathed  and  plastered,  and  has  a 
Cement  walk  in  the  rear  of  the  pens  in  each  wing.  A  half  tone  from  a  photograph  of  this 
building  appears  on  page  78. 

On  a  line  with  the  front  of  this  building,  at  the  end  of  the  east  wing,  is  a  small  house  (C) 
•which  was  probably  once  t/ie  poultry  house,  but  it  is  now  used  for  surplus  stock,  sitting 
hens,  chicks,  or  whatever  is  convenient;  this  house  is  55  ft.  long,  with  a  central  pen  having  a 
hexagonal  front,  and  two  20  ft.  wings.  The  wings  are  8  ft.  6  in.  wide,  and  each  contains 
lour  pens.  The  hexagonal  front  pen  is,  at  the  widest  part,  3  ft.  wider  than  the  wings. 
Between  A  and  C  is  an  open  shed,  R. 

Euch  pen  in  A  has  an  outside  run  of  th  same  width  as  the  inside  pen,  8  ft.,  and  35  ft.  in 
length.  Then  for  every  three  of  these  pens  there  is  a  grassy  yard,  24  x  40  ft.,  set  with  fruit 
trees,  to  which  the  pens  have  access  in  turn.  There  are  no  separate  outside  runs  for  the  pens 
in  C,  these  opening  in  common  into  the  yard  between  C,  the  east  line  of  the  yards  of  A,  the 
east  boundary  fence,  and  the  north  end  and  fence  of  the  cockerel  bouse  B. 

This  cockerel  house  B  is  a  story  and  a  half  house  60  ft.  long  by  10  ft.  wide.  It  runs 
almost  exactly  north  and  south,  and  has  full  wMndows  in  each  lower  pen  on  both  east  and  west 
sides.  The  first  floor  is  divided  into  five  sections,  the  north  one,  into  which  the  door  opens, 
being  used  as  a  store  room.  Upstairs  are  the  cockerel  pens.  At  the  east  side  of  the  house  are 
yards  corresponding  to  the  inside  pens.  The  fowls  in  the  south  pen  also  often  have  the 
run  of  the  large  triangular  yard,  T.  In  this  yard  T  are  several  roosting  coops  for  chicks.  Gen- 
erally a  number  of  broods  of  Leghorn  chicks  are  started  in  small  coops  in  this  yard,  trans- 
ferred later  to  the  roosting  coops,  and  finally  the  cockerels  put  in  the  end  pen  of  C,  the 
puilets  going  to  other  quarters. 

There  is  a  small  yard  south  (properly  southeast)  of  the  dwelling  house  which  is  used 
lor  chicks.  Then  at  the  west  end  of  A,  between  this  house  and  its  yard  and  Grove  street, 


80 


LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  — 5LCOND  5LRIEA 


>  tu 

C.  F.  Thompson  &  Co.'s  'Poultry  'Plant 
Scale,  1-8O  inch  to  the  foot; 

A,  B,  C,  stock  houses,  long  houses  with  walks,  brooder  house  in  east  end  of  C; 

is  a  large  yard,  used,  as  a  rule,  for  :i  breeding  pen.  On  the  otber  side  of  Grove  street  is  a 
pasture  used  for  a  few  broods  of  chicks  iu  the  early  part  of  the  season,  and  later  for  pullets, 
these  being  housed  through  the  summer  in  slatted  front  roosting  coops  placed  in  a  row  under 
the  trees  near  the  street  with  intervals  of  about  100  ft.  between  the  coops. 

Hr.   Bright's  Farm   Plant. 

On  the  home  plant  Mr.  Bright  had  to  make  the  buildings  and  yards  fit  the  space  available,  but 
on  the  thirty-five  acre  farm,  less  than  half  a  mile  away,  he  bad  ample  room  for  whatever  sort 
of  building  equipment  he  might  want.  The  beginning  of  the  poultry  plant  on  this  farm  wa» 
the  200  ft.  house  A,  with  cook  and  feed  house  attached. 

This  house  faces  squarely  south.  It  is  ID  ft.  wide,  and  contains  19  pens  10£  ft.  wide 
by  11  ft.  deep.  The  passage  in  the  rear  of  the  pens  is  4ft.  wide.  The  cook  and  feed  house  is  just 
bark  of  the  west  end  of  this  house,  and  consists  of  one  room  20  ft.  square,  in  which  are  the 
cooker,  bone  cutter,  pump,  etc.,  an  L,  12  x  20  ft.,  containing  the  feed  bins,  and  a  lean-to  8  ft. 
wide,  in  which  is  the  boiler.  At  the  east  end  of  the  200  ft.  house  is  a  shed  for  manure. 

The  arrangement  of  yards  here  is  similar  to  that  on  the  plant  first  described, except  that  the 
large  yards  are  longer,  and  there  are  more  of  them.  The  yards  next  the  house,  coi  re- 
sponding to  the  pens  inside  are  10£  ft.  wide  by  30  it.  long.  The  general  plan  is  a  large  yard 
for  every  two  of  these,  just  the  width  of  two  yards,  and  120ft.  long.  The  last  long  yard  is 
irregular.  As  the  number  of  small  yards  is  uneven,  it  is  made  the  width  of  three  small  yard-. 
There  are  grape  vines  iu  the  small  yards  running  up  over  the  division  fences  and  affording  fine 
shade.  The  large  yards  are  set  with  fruit  trees. 

About  200  ft.  back  of  the  house  A  is  a  scratching  shed  house  B,  126  ft.  in  length.  This  house 
was  made  from  part  of  an  old  barn  and  some  other  out  buildings,  and  is  of  such  irregular 
construction  that  I  did  not  attempt  an  accurate  diagram  —  not  thinking  that  a  matter  of 
special  importance  In  this  connection.  There  are  about  twice  as  many  pens  as  yards,  some 
having  scratching  sheds,  and  some  small  pens  having  none.  These  small  pens  are  used  mostly 
as  accessory  to  the  large  pens,  or  for  sitters  or  extra  males.  The  yards  in  front  are  72  ft. 
deep,  and  of  varying  widths,  the  narrowest  being  26  ft. ;  the  widest  35  ft. 


A  TWO  THOUSAND   HLN    PLANT. 


1 


at  Lynnfield  Center,   Mass. 

1-16  inch  equals  .".  feet. 

a,  d,  e,  detached  coops  for  liens  and  chicks,  or  for  surplus  stock  ;  b,  c,  and  i,  small  houses. 

West  of  the  bouse,  with  :i  roadway  14  ft.  wide  between  them,  is  the  building  C,  the  mail* 
M-irt  of  which  is  a  cockerel  house  11  ft.  wide  by  40  ft.  long.  At  the  east  end  of  this  is  a  she\l 
16  x  20  ft.  for  hitching  place  for  teams.  This  cockerel  house  contains  eight  pens  5x7  ft.,, 
with  walk  a  little  over  3  ft.  wide  in  the  rear.  The  out>ide  measurement  of  the  width  of 
the  building  is  11  ft.  The  other  measurements  were  made  inside,  hence  the  discrepancy  of 
some  inches.  There  are  no  outside  pens  connecting  with  this  house. 

Directly  west  of  the  feed  room  and  100  ft.  distant  from  it  is  a  second  cockerel  house  I),  12  x 
36  ft.,  containing  6  pens  6  x  12  ft.  Outside  are  yards  30  ft.  long  and  of  the  same  width  as  the 
inside  pens. 

In  front  of  this  house,  and  98  ft.  from  the  line  of  the  front  of  the  200  ft.  house  is  a  thin! 
cockerel  house  built  last  fall.  This  house  is  15  ft.  wide,  not  quite  100  ft.  long,  and  contain* 
over  fifty  pens. 

The  land  actually  occupied  by  the  poultry  plant  described,  including  spaces  between  the 
separate  buildings  and  yards  comprises  a  little  over  three  acres.  Much  of  the  remainder  of 
the  farm  is  given  to  the  young  stock,  the  growing  stock  in  roosting  coops  being  well  spread 
over  it.  The  mowing  land  gives  a  heavy  crop  of  grass  before  it  is  needed  for  the  chicks. 
A  couple  of  acres  are  planted  to  cabbage  for  the  fowls  every  year.  Some  grain  is  grown  for 
hay  and  litter,  and  there  is  some  ground  in  garden  crops,  but  the  growing  chicks  have  all  the 
range  they  can  use. 

Then  several  hundred  yards  in  front  of  the  house  A  there  is  a  grassy  shrubby  piece  of  low 
ground  where  several  sheds  are  erected.  In  these  after  the  breeding  season  the  hens  from  the 
breeding  pens  take  their  vacation. 

A  Two  Thousand  Hen   Plant. 

The  plant  of  C.  F.  Thompson  &  Co.,  at  Lynnfield  Center,  Mass.,  is  another  case  where  the 
land,  some  dozen  acres,  allowed  a  liberal  margin  around  the  houses  and  yards,  and  so  required! 
no  close  figuring  on  space. 

Still  it  is  quite  on  the  extensive  plan,  and  while  I  have  called  it  a  2,000  hen  plant,  and  the 
winter  capacity  is  over  2,000  hens,  Messrs.  Thompson  &  Co.  do  not  attempt  to  grow  even  half 
their  young  stock  here,  but  have  over  half  of  it  grown  for  them  elsewhere. 


82 


LL$SON5   IN    POULTRY  KLLPING  — 5LCOND  5LRIL5. 


Viewing  the  diagram  of  this  plant  first  as  a  whole,  we  see  first  a  row  of  small  houses,  a, a. 
Then  the  small  house  b,  with  the  pump  house  next  it.  Then  back  of  this  another  small  house, 
<.-.  Then  the  three  long  houses,  A,  B.  and  C,  and  the  cook  and  feed  houses.  Back  of  these 
sigain  are  more  small  detached  houses,  and  far  back  of  these  a  single  house,  i.  Back  of  the 
«;ook  house  is  a  house  which  could  be  used  for  a  man  if  required,  but  is  now  occupied  by  aten- 
3int.  The  distance  from  the  road  in  front  of  the  residence  to  the  rear  line  of  the  farm  is 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 

The  poultry  houses  face  the  southeast.  A  narrow  road  runs  from  the  public  road  in  front 
«long  the  northeast  line  of  the  plant  as  platted. 

The  long  houses,  A,  B,  C,  are  of  the  same  width,  12  ft.  A  and  B  are  each  240  ft.  long.  C  is 
200  ft.  long.  There  is  a  3  ft.  walk  in  each  house.  In  A  there  are  12  pens;  in  B,  13.  In  C  the 
(first  OS  ft.  from  the  northeast  end  is  the  brooder  house.  The  remainder  of  the  house  is  divided 
into  seven  pens. 

The  yards  for  A  are  12  yards,  each  42  ft.  long,  corresponding  with  the  interior  pens,  and 
*ix  larger  yards  with  the  width  of  two  small  yards.  In  front  of  B  the  small  yards  are  38  ft. 
*leep,  and  between  them  and  the  house  A  is  a  large  undivided  yard  to  which  the  fowls  from 
B  have  access  alternately.  There  is  quite  a  dip  in  the  ground  at  this  point,  and  for  convenience 
in  work  this  little  valley  is  bridged  by  an  elevated  walk  extending  from  the  end  of  A  to  B, 
which  saves  a  great  deal  of  up  and  down  hill  work  in  feeding  and  watering. 

The  large  cook  and  store  house  is  24£  x  42  ft.,  the  smaller  feed  house  15  x  30  ft.,  with  a  root 
cellar  under  it;  the  small  houses,  b  and  c,  are  old  buildings  that  were  on  the  farm  when  pur- 
chased by  Mr.  Thompson.  For  yard  room  the  fowls  in  b  have  the  long  yard  running  cross- 
ways  of  the  plant  back  of  the  small  houses  a,  a,  while  those  in  c  are  given  the  run  of  the  large 
yard  which  should,  in  accordance  with  the  plan,  be  used  for  the  first  pens  in  house  A. 

The  small  houses  a,  a,  are  each  5  x  8  ft.,  divided  in  the  middle, and  are  used  especially  for 
liens  and  chicks,  for  the  young  broods  first,  later  for  the  growing  stock.  In  winter  they  fur- 
nish good  places  for  surplus  males.  Except  for  the  first  two  where  the  yards  had  to  be  short 
on  account  of  the  projection  of  the  dwelling  house  and  barn,  these  yards  are  58  ft.  in  depth, 

The  small  houses  in  the  rear  of  the  plant  are  each  5  ft.  wide  by  18£  ft.  long,  divided  in  the 
middle,  giving  pens  suitable  for  detached  brooders,  for  roosting  quarters  for  growing  stock,  or 
for  small  pens  of  mature  fowls.  As  will  be  noticed,  the 
liouse  at  the  extreme  end  of  each  row  is  out  of  the  sys- 
tem, and  these  houses  are  in  fact  extra,  not  regularly 
tised.  That  in  the  first  row  has  a  small  yard  in  front  of 
it;  the  other  has  none.  Their  principal  use  is  for  vaca- 
tion quarters  for  the  breeding  stock. 

It  will-be  noticed  that  the  yards  for  the  pens  in  the 
southwest  half  of  each  house  in  the  row  d,  d,  are  smaller 
than  the  others.  To  compensate  for  this,  the  chicks 
from  these  pens  are  alternately  given  free  run  in  the 
vacant  space  back  of  them. 

Something  like  a  hundred  yards  back  of  this  row  of 
iiouses  is  a  house  14  x  30. ft.,  which  has  been  used  for 
<diflVrent  purposes,  but  will  next  year  be  used  for  breed- 
ing pens  of  Leghorns.  Scattered  about  this  undivided 
>p:ice  are  coops  similar  to  those  commonly  used  as 
voostinu  coops  for  growing  stock.  In  these  the  breed- 
ii-g  hers  kept  over  are  every  year  given  their  vacation 
through  the  hot  months. 

A    Roomy    Plant   for  a    Small    Space. 

By  a  "  small  space"  here  I  mean  small  as  compared 
with  those  we  have  been  considering.  This  plant  was 
on  a  three  acre  lot  in  the  residence  portion  of  a  town. 
As  described  it  occupied  about  half  an  acre,  such  a 


* 


D« 


A   Plant  1o  Fit  a  Small  Space. 

Scale,  1-8O  inch  to  the  foot;  1-16 

inch  equals  5  feet. 

A.  oJd  house;  J>,  new  house;  c-,  bantam 

house. 


A  ROOMY   PLANT  FOR  A  SMALL  SPACE.  83 

space  as  it  is  possible  to  give  poultry  on  many  large  village  lots.  I  occupied  these  premises  as 
lessee  for  several  years  before  buying  my  home,  and  the  buildings  used  were  put  up  with 
the  intention  of  removing  them  at  the  expiration  of  the  lease,  and  were  moved  then,  though 
circumstances  necessitating  my  absence  from  home  at  tbe  time  made  leaving  the  work  to  a 
man  not  familiar  with  the  construction  of  the  large  building  unavoidable  and  the  job  was  badly 
handled. 

A  part  of  the  house  A  was  on  the  place  when  we  moved  there.  At  a  cost  of  about  five  dollars 
a  sbed  was  added  to  this  little  house  which  more  than  doubled  its  capacity.  This  house  was 
used  in  the  season  for  one  breeding  pen.  The  yard  joining  it  is  40ft.  wide  by  150  feet  deep.  For 
shade  it  has  a  large  grape  vine,  a  small  apple  tree,  and  several  pear  trees. 

The  yard  space  available  in  front  of  the  new  house  B,  was  not  quite  100  ft.  in  width,  and  155 
ft.  in  depth.  There  were  three  rows  of  apple  trees  in  this  space,  and  in  order  to  divide  the 
shade  as  evenly  as  possible,  as  well  as  to  make  yard  room  for  the  fowls  in  the  6  x  12  pen,  the 
principal  division  fence  was  put  on  the  line  of  the  middle  row  of  trees,  this  being  about  10  ft. 
nearer  the  west  than  the  east  wall.  Then  the  yard  for  the  small  pen  was  taken  in  the  corner  of 
the  east  and  larger  division. 

Buck  of  A,  and  a  little  to  one  side  is  the  bantam  house,  C,  the  fowls  from  which  had  the 
liberty  of  the  lawn.  By  dotted  lines  in  the  west  pen  of  B  is  indicated  a  partition  put  in  tempo- 
rarily at  times  for  the  accommodation  of  a  small  special  mating,  the  yard  being  as  indicated  by 
the  dotted  lines  outside. 

J* 

The  plots  and  descriptions  of  these  plants  as  I  have  given  them,  indicating  the  positions  and 
dimensions  of  houses  and  yards,  afl'ord  but  an  incomplete  idea  of  the  plants  themselves.  In 
each  the  spaces  available  outside  of  the  yards  must  be  regarded  as  essential  features,  giving  the 
opportunity  to  raise  young  stock  under  better  conditions  than  are  possible  with  close  yarding, 
and  also  to  put  out  the  old  stock  at  times  to  give  it  a  change  and  rest. 

I  might  describe  a  number  of  other  plants,  but  cannot  at  present  give  plots  of  them,  and  in  ft 
general  way  the  descriptions  of  the  best  of  those  wrhere  continuous  long  houses  are  used  would 
be  but  a  repetition  of  some  of  these,  with  variations  according  to  the  size  of  the  plant,  the  "lay" 
of  the  land,  and  the  proprietor's  appreciation  of  the  needs  of  his  stock  and  the  advantages  and 
possibilities  of  the  situation. 

Where  the  colony  plan,  or  any  modification  of  it,  is  used,  the  houses  are  usually  so  much 
scattered  that  to  plot  the  poultry  houses  and  ranges  on  a  scale  that  would  give  any  correct 
appreciation  of  the  arrangement,  is  not  practicable  for  use  in  this  connection.  Besides,  the 
colony  plan  more  than  any  other,  requires  to  be  adapted  to  the  features  of  tbe  farm  and  to 
other  operations  carried  on  upon  it,  and  the  variations  in  it  made  from  time  to  time  with  refer- 
ence to  those  things  may  give  very  different  arrangements  in  each  of  a  series  of  years.  In  a 
nutshell  this  system  consists  in  distributing  about  the  farm,  as  is  at  any  time  most  convenient, 
a  number  of  small  poultry  houses  of  a  capacity  of  several  dozen  hens  each. 

J* 

In  tbe  laying  out  of  a  permanent  system  of  houses  and  yards  the  most  important  point  to 
consider  is  the  convenience  of  the  keeper  and  economy  of  time  and  labor  in  caring  for  the 
fowls.  In  making  this  statement  I  assume  that  the  comfort  of  the  fowls  and  their  needs 
indoors  and  out  have  had  due  consideration  in  tbe  decisions  as  to  the  style  of  house  to  be  used 
and  the  kind  of  yards.  Of  course  in  practice  we  cannot  make  such  a  separation  of  points  to  be 
considered,  taking  up  one  at  a  time  and  deciding  it.  We  have  rather  to  settle  each  point  tenta- 
tively, then  taking  it  up  in  connection  with  the  next  decide  whether  it  can  be  carried  out  as  we 
had  planned  or  must  be  modified  or  entirely  changed  to  get  best  results.  One  style  of  house 
might  be  preferred  if  each  house  was  to  contain  only  a  few  pens,  while  if  a  house  of  many  com- 
partments was  to  be  built  another  plan  might  be  better.  The  house  plan  preferred  might 
require  a  system  of  yards  which  in  eome  situations  would  be  the  best,  because  they  would 
utilize  all  tbe  laud  available  for  yards,  but  in  other  situations  would  not  be  satisfactory  because 
they  left  out  of  use  land  which  with  another  style  of  house  and  arrangement  of  yards  oould  be 
used  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  stork,  and  with  some  saving  as  well. 


84  LL55ON.5  IN   POULTRY   KEEPING  —  5LCOND  5E.RILS. 

Occasionally  it  happens  that  the  possibilities  of  a  piece  of  ground  are  plainly  seen  at  a  glance,, 
and  almost  anyone  sit  all  familiar  with  the  laying  out  of  poultry  plants  would  know  at  a  glance 
just  the  best  way  to  arrange  a  poultry  plant  there.  Oftener  the  best  arrangement  for  the  poul- 
try plant  comes  to  one  only  after  a  good  deal  of  thoughtful  study  of  the  situation. 

To  anyone,  however  inexperienced,  looking  at  a  well  arranged  poultry  plant  it  seems  ;i  very 
simple  thing  to  lay  out  such  a  plant,  but  sometimes  the  simplest  and  most  natural  looking 
arrangements  have  been  reached  only  after  a  good  deal  of  puzzling  over  the  situation  and 
several  remodelings.  This  is  a  feature  by  no  means  peculiar  to  cases  such  as  we  are  now 
discussing. 

Indeed  partiality  to  a  certain  style  of  house  or  arrangement  of  yards  has  been  a  stumbling 
block  in  the  laying  out  of  many  a  plant,  when  if,  as  it  was  found  that  the  preferred  style  of 
house  and  yard  did  not  suit  the  case,  the  poultryman  had  set  about  making  yards  to  n't  the  land 
and  his  convenience  and  houses  to  suit,  the  solution  of  the  problem  would  not  have  been  long 
delayed. 

A  long  continuous  house  requires  for  its  location  a  piece  of  ground  that  is  level  one  way, 
otherwise  the  house  must  be  built  with  one  end  higher  than  the  other,  or  with  short  sections  on 
different  levels,  either  of  which  arrangements  is  unsatisfactory,  the  former  making  the  tem- 
perature in  the  house  very  uneven,  and  the  latter  making  passage  through  the  house  very 
inconvenient. 

Again  it  very  often  happens  that  a  piece  of  land  most  suitable  for  a  long  poultry  house  is  so 
situated  that  by  locating  one  or  more  long  houses  on  it  the  yards  are  very  much  restricted.  I 
have  seen  more  than  a  few  plants  where  all  the  advantages  of  giving  the  fowls  good  range  had 
been  sacrificed  in  this  way. 

Often  the  desire  to  have  the  poultry  plant  convenient  to  the  dwelling  and  to  other  outbuild- 
ings is  responsible  for  placing  it  where  it  is  restricted  on  every  side.  Convenience  in  this 
respect  is  a  point  well  worth  considering,  but  it  ought  not  to  be  secured  at  a  loss  of  other 
advantages.  It  is  certainly  very  much  better  to  have  a  little  longer  walk  between  the  dwell- 
ing and  the  poultry  buildings  than  to  expend  in  other  ways  more  time  and  labor  than  is  saved 
by  having  the  poultry  plant  convenient  to  the  house.  If  the  poultry  layout  can  be  close  to  the 
dwelling,  and  convenient  and  suitable  in  every  other  way  also,  so  much  the  better.  The  small 
plant  of  which  a  plot  has  been  given  combined  in  an  unusual  degree  convenience  to  the 
dwelling  and  convenience  in  every  part  of  the  work. 

For  the  most  satisfactory  layout  of  a  poultry  plant  that  is  not  made  to  exactly  fit  a  prescribed 
space,  the  poultryman  must  take  time.  Even  the  "expert"  is  likely  to  make  mistakes  if  he 
goes  on  a  place  to  lay  out  a  certain  type  of  plant,  and  does  so  according  to  the  situation  as  it 
appears  to  him  at  the  time.  Indeed,  plants  that  are  laid  out  by  experts  in  this  way,  and,  in 
fact,  almost  all  poultry  plants  laid  out  on  a  large  scale  at  the  beginning  are  quite  sure  to  prove 
unsatisfactory  unless  all  features  of  the  business  can  be  carried  on  according  to  the  original 
plan  —  which  very  rarely  happens.  The  usual  thing  is  for  the  business  to  develop  along  lines 
somewhat  different  from  what  the  proprietor  designed,  and  in  this  case  the  equipment  must  be 
changed  to  suit,  or  used  at  some  disadvantage. 

If  the  poultryman,  as  I  have  more  than  once  advised  in  the  course  of  these  lessons,  is  con- 
tent to  let  his  plant  grow  slowly,  build  only  as  he  needs,  and  build  inexpensive  buildings,  he 
gives  himself  ample  time  to  consider  different  plans  in  their  adaptability  to  his  needs  and 
opportunities,  and  also  to  test  different  types  of  buildings  and  different  methods  on  a  small 
scale  before  introducing  them  on  a  large  scale.  This  subject  is  one  to  which  expert  knowledge 
is  more  difficult  to  apply  than  to  most  of  the  subjects  on  which  poultrymen  ask  for  advice.  To 
know  a  location  thoroughly  you  must  have  summered  and  wintered  with  it  several  times  over, 
and  seen  the  effects  of  different  weather  conditions.  So  I  have  always  been  reluctant  to  gfve 
suggestions  about  the  laying  out  of  poultry  plants  for  anything  more  than  suggestions  which 
would  help  the  parties  interested  to  solve  the  problem  for  themselves.  I  have  laid  out  for 
myself  one  large  poultry  plant  and  two  small  ones.  In  no  case  was  I  able,  though  I  was 
reasonably  deliberate  about  it,  and  in  the  two  later  instances  had  a  good  deal  of  knowledge  of 
other  plants  to  draw  upon,  to  make  a  plan  that  was  so  good  I  could  not,  after  using  it  a  little 
while,  improve  on  it.  This,  I  think,  has  been  the  common  experience  of  those  who  have  given 


VALUE.  OF  VISITING   POULTRY  PLANT5.  85 

the  subject  much  attention.  One  of  the  most  convenient  plants  I  ever  saw  finally  took  shape 
on  a  spot  that  would  generally  have  been  condemned  as  quite  unsuited  for  the  laying  out  of  a 
model  plant.  The  man  who  planned  it  was  much  above  the  average  in  intelligence  and  invent- 
iveness, but  the  plan  as  ultimately  worked  out  did  not  corne  to  him  all  at  once. 

So  I  feel  that  in  a  lesson  an  this  subject  the  most  that  I  can  do  for  a  poultry-man  of  some 
experience  is  to  tell  him  what  some  others  have  done,  and  perhaps  remind  him  of  a  few  points 
he  has  overlooked.  And  for  the  beginner  the  most  that  I  can  do  is  to  give  him  a  general  idea 
of  how  several  good  plants  have  been  laid  out,  suggest  for  his  consideration  a  number  of  points, 
and  urge  him  to  go  slow,  to  take  his  time,  not  to  plan  too  far  beyond  his  necessities,  and  in  his 
building  to  consider  how  far  each  part  of  the  plant  constructed  can  be  adapted  to  changes.  If 
the  first  buildings  are  of  light  and  simple  construction  they  may  either  be  moved  about  or  torn 
down  and  the  materials  worked  over  into  other  buildings  with  very  little  loss.  If  they  are 
expensive  buildings  of  very  substantial  construction  they  must  either  be  used  as  they  are  or 
remodeled  at  an  expense  which  not  infrequently  is  as  great  as  the  cost  of  new  cheap  houses. 

A  most  important  thing  for  the  person  whxTexpects  to  lay  out  a  poultry  plant  is  to  visit  as 
many  plants  as  possible  and  study  them,  not  so  much  with  the  idea  of  making  a  model  plant, 
combining  the  best  features  of  tbem  all,  but  to  find  out  how  in  the  light  of  the  owner's  experi- 
ence each  plant  answers  the  expectations  with  which  it  was  planned.  This  gives  one  a  better 
idea  of  the  things  that  affect  operations  differently  under  different  circumstances.  It  also  gives 
one  a  better  insight  into  the  adaptability  of  different  styles  of  houses  and  systems  of  poultry 
culture  to  different  locations,  and  of  the  possibilities  of  tracts  of  land  containing  features  not 
generally  regarded  as  desirable  for  a  poultry  farm. 

If  one  has  the  opportunity  to  visit  a  large  poultry  farm  again  and  again  at  different  seasons, 
he  can  get  a  very  much  better  comprehension  of  the  good  and  bad  points  of  its  plan.  If  he  is 
learning  the  business  and  can  make  himself  something  of  a  journeyman  working  for  a  season 
on  each  of  several  good  plants,  he  should  be  able,  if  he  is  constantly  studying  the  subject  for 
himself,  to  get  something  of  the  best  out  of  each  method  and  plan,  and  thus  bring  to  his  own 
plan  when  the  time  comes  to  make  it  a  practical  combination  of  good  methods  and  features 
which  it  is  rarely  possible  for  those  who  plan  without  having  had  practical  experience  to  make. 


LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  — SECOND  5LR1LS. 


LESSON     VIII. 


Kinds,  Breeds,  and  Varieties  of  Fowls. 


BY  "FOWLS"  in  this  lesson  \vemean  birds  of  the  species  "galliis  domesticus,"  which 
for  want  of  any  other  specific  English  term,  are  often  called  "chickens,"  though 
"  chicken"  applies  properly  only  to  their  young.  Perhaps  in  time,  common  usage  will 
limit  the  use  of  the  word  "fowl"  as  we  limit  it  here.  There  seems  to  be  a  tendency 
that  way.  Most  poultrymen  so  use  the  word,  but  the  explanation  of  this  use  of  the  term  is 
sometimes  necessary  for  readers  not  familiar  with  th:it  usage. 

We  may  classify  fowls  as: — Common  or  mongrel,  cross  bred,  grade,  pure  bred,  or  thorough- 
bred, and  "  Standard  "  bred. 

Mongrel  fowls  are  fowls  of  no  special  breeding,  generally  a  mixture  containing  the  blood  of 
many  varieties  of  pure  bred  fowls,  though  in  some  sections  there  are  still  to  be  found  flocks 
in  which  the  blood  of  the  old  common  stock  is  still  strong.  A  flock  of  mongrels  generally 
presents  nunjprous  very  distinct  types  of  fowls. 

Cross  breatovfh  are  the  result  of  a  union  of  two  pure  breeds.  The  term  is  usually  limited 
to  the  produce  of  a  first  cross. 

Grade  fowls  are  produced  by  a  systematic  series  of  crosses,  beginning  with  a  thoroughbred 
male  and  females  of  mongrel  stock,  and  mating  each  year  a  male  of  the  same  pure  breed  with 
females  from  the  mating  of  the  previous  year.  By  this  process,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years, 
the  stock  becomes  practically  thoroughbred.  Sometimes  pure  bred  females  are  used  in  the 
first  instance. 

The  terms  pure  bred  and  thoroughbred  are  synonymous,  and  the  term  /Standard  bred  is 
also  generally  synonymous  with  the  others. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  there  are  few,  if  any,  stocks  of  fowls  that  are  absolutely  pure  in  blood  ; 
that  is,  entirely  free  from  any  mixture  or  trace  of  the  blood  of  fowls  not  of  their  kind ;  but 
most  of  our  pure  or  thoroughbred  races  are  sufficiently  well  bred  to  make  the  production  of 
specimens  plainly  showing  obsolete  ancestral  characters  extremely  rare.  A  Standard  bred 
fowl  is  a  fowl  bred  to  conform  to  the  requirements  of  the  "American  Standard  of  Perfection," 
as  promulgated  by  the  American  Poultry  Association. 

To  be  admitted  to  the  "Standard,"  a  breed  or  variety  must  be  able  to  reproduce  its  type 
in  a  large  proportion  of  its  progeny.  There  are  also  other  qualifications  to  be  considered,  as 
whether  the  breed  presents  new  and  distinct  features;  but  as  the  judgment  of  the  association  is 
sometimes  erratic,  it  happens  occasionally  that  some  fowls  that  are  entitled  to  recognition  are 
excluded,  and  also  that  unworthy  varieties  and  breeds  are  admitted.  Hence  we  find  some 
pure  breeds  not"  standard  bred,"  because  they  are  not  "in  the  Standard;"  and  some  breeds 
in  the  Standard  that  breed  very  indifferently.  We  also  find  breeds  in  the  Standard  in  which 
poultrymen  are  little  interested,  while  we  may  frequently  find  very  great  interest  taken  in 
breeds  outside  of  the  Standard. 


KINDS,   BRLE.DS,  AND   VAR1FLTIFLS  OF   FOWLS. 


'  87 


In  this  lesson  we  limit  special  consideration  of  fowls  to  thoroughbred  or  purebred  fowl*.. 
Common  or  mongrel  stock  rarely  satisfies  lor  long  the  person  trying  to  get  pleasure  or  protu 
from  poultry.  The  lack  of  uniformity  in. It,  and  the  uncertainty  of  results  In  breeding  from  it,, 
usually  makes  persons  especially  interested  in  poultry  turn  to  pure  bred  stock  to  get  thes-e 
points,  even  if  they  have  not  been  convinced  that  well  bred  stock  are  more  profitable  —  belter 
egg  producers,  and  better  for  market  poultry. 

That  well  bred,  thoroughbred  stock  is  better  for  egg  production,  has  been  demonstrated  fn 
practice  over  and  over.  This  statement  will  hold  good  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  some  successful 
poultrymen  do  not  use  well  bred  stock  —  are  not  good  breeders,  while  there  is  a  very  general 
belief  that  crosses  are  hardier,  and  many  will  affirm  that  crosses  make  belter  layers.  Without 
entering  into  any  argument  in  the  premises,  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  two  general  facts  that 
prove  the  general  superiority  of  thoroughbreds: 

First.—  The  great  development  of  the  poultry  industry  in  this  country  followed  closeljr 
the  comparatively  general  introduction  of  thoroughbred  fowls. 

Second. —  An  overwhelming  majority  of  poultry  keepers  whose  successes  attract  attention 
keep  pure  bred  fowls. 

It  would  be  absurd  to  maintain  that  success  in  poultry  culture  could  be  achieved  only 
with  thoroughbred  fowls.  Success  depends  on  other  things  quite  as  much  as  on  the  kind  of 
fowls  kept.  But  it  will  be  found  a  general  rule  that  —  whatever  the  cause  —  inability  to  get 
as  good  results  from  pure  bred  fowls  as  from  mixtures  is  a  serious  handicap  to  a  poultry 
keeper. 


A  brief  reference  to  the  history  of  the  breeds  of  fowls  will  show  bow  thoroughbred  fowl's* 
supplanted  others  among  progressive  poultrymen,  and  also  how  some  classes  or  types  of  thor- 
oughbreds have  generally  replaced  others.  This  historical  showing  should  have  a  most 
important  bearing  on  the  attitude  of  the  poultryman  toward  the  various  breeds  and  types,  for 
in  few  things  does  the  law  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest  work  more  relentlessly  than  in  the 
determination  of  the  status  of  a  variety  of  fowls. 

It  was  between  1840 

T —  ;«  ^\w*ttAzm&2 
& 


American  public  began 
improvement  of  domes- 
time  the  fowls  of  the 
class  to  arouse  entbu- 
t  h  e  possibilities  o  f 
have  since  unfolded, 
there  were  scattered 
out  the  country  flocks 
some  developed  crude- 
before  their  time,  and 
in  l»y  people  coming 
where  superior  types  of 
but  the  public  gen- 
by  them,  and  they 
pression  on  the  poultry 
Early  in  the  ">for- 
fowls  imported  from 
attention.  Traditions 
as  much  that  passes  as 
on  slots  of  these  fowls 
Orient  by  sea  captains, 
the  detailed  stories  of 
particular  lots  of  these 


Buff    'Plymouth    Rocks. 


a  n  d  1850  that  t  h  e 
to  be  interested  in  the 
tic  fowls.  Prior  to  that 
country  were  not  of  a 
siasm,  or  to  suggest 
development  which 
We  may  assume  that 
here  and  there  through- 
of  well  bred  fowls  — 
Jy  by  the  fanciers  born 
some,  perhaps,  brought 
from  foreign  countries 
fowls  were  to  be  found  ; 
erally  was  not  attracted 
made  no  distinct  fm- 
culture  of  the  time. 
ties"  some  gigantic 
Asia  began  to  attract 
which  are  as  accurate 
history,  say  that  \ari- 
were  brought  from  the 
Some  who  donotcredit 
the  importations  of 
fowls,  claim  that  tbej 


LE55ONS  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SLCOND  SERIES. 


were  develop- 
country  a  n  d 
aboard  the 
^d  to  h  a  v  e 
from  abroad, 
nation,  how- 
removes  the 
farther  back  — 
reasonable  to 
fowls  of  this 
sis  introduced 
were  develop- 
vommon  stock 
w  i  t  h  o  u  t  at- 
I  ion. 

tic  fowls  were 
type  o  f  o  u  r 
in*  and  Brah- 
out  the  finish 
feather,  a  n  d 
>harp  differ- 
v  a  r  i  e  t  i  e  s 
*4nce  taken 
were  large 
threat  size  as 
with  the  com- 


ed  In  this 
s  in  u  g  g  I  c  d 
vessels  reput- 
brought  them 
Such  an  expla- 
ever,  merely 
import  ation 
for  it  is  not 
suppose  that 
class  and  type 
to  the  public 
ed  from  our 
or  developed 
trading  atten- 
ri'hese  Asia- 
of  the  general 
present  Coch- 
in a  8,  but  with- 


Si  he  i 


without  the 
entiation  into 
which  has. 
place.  They 
birds.  Their 
compared 
mon  fowls 


Laced     Wyandottes. 

>eems  to  have  been  their  first  point  of  attraction.  They  were  docile  and  hardy,  and  were 
generally  given,  by  those  who  tried  them,  the  reputation  of  being  good  layers.  They  laid  large 
brown  eggs — then  a  novelty  in  our  markets,  and  as  poultry  were  considered  very  superior  to 
the  common  fowls. 

They  were  immediately  taken  up  both  by  "fanciers''  and  by  poultry  keepers.  The  fanciers 
immediately  began  to  multiply  breeds  by  giving  different  names  to  different  types  and  colors. 
Quite  a  number  of  poultrymen  began  at  once  to  try  to  improve  the  common  stock  in  their  hands 
i»y  crossing  the  large  males  on  it.  It  is  said  that  one  effect  of  this  was  that  within  a  few  years 
the  poultry  brought  into  the  Boston  markets  was  noticeably  improved  in  size.  Another  result 
was  a  general  quickening  of  interest  in  better  poultry.  People  began  to  try  to  learn  something 
of  established  breeds  of  fowls;  numerous  importations  were  made  from  England  especially, 
though  there  may  have  been  some  from  continental  countries.  Within  a  few  years  most  of  the 
breeds  having  any  vogue  in  England  were  pretty  well  represented  here,  and  forty  years  a^o 
Ilamburgs,  Polish,  and  Spanish  were  distributed  quite  generally  throughout  the  northern 
t-tates— not  in  such  numbers  as  are  found  of  popular  fowls  today,  but  still  numerous  enough  t  > 
Isecome  familiar  objects.  Asiatics  seem  to  have  been  distributed  more  slowly.  All  these 
worked  into  the  common  stocks  of  the  country  until,  when  I  was  a  boy  beginning  to  be  much 
interested  in  poultry,  a  large  proportion  of  the  farm  flocks  contained  many  specimens  showing 
unmistakable  evidence  of  well  bred  parentage  of  some  of  these  races. 

Such  breeding,  however,  was  indiscriminate,  and  led  to  nothing  definite.  None  of  the  new 
types  produced  were  able  to  gain  more  than  local  prominence.  Nor  did  the  thoroughbred 
fowls  of  those  days  take  with  the  public,  especially  the  farmers,  as  did  those  which  were  to  be 
brought  out  later. 


It  is  less  than  thirty  years  since  the  first  of  our  present  "American  class"  of  fowls  was  intro- 
duced to  the  public  as  the  "Plymouth  Rx;k,"  to  be  known  later,  as  other  varieties  of  the  same 
breed  type  appeared,  as  the  B  irre  1  P.ymouth  Rock.  Into  the  disputes  with  regard  to  the 
origin  of  this  fowl  we  need  not  enter  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  in  it  were  combined  for  the 


POPULARITY  OF  THE.   NEW  TYPE.  OF  FOWL. 


89 


first  time  with  promise  of  race  permanence  the  most  generally  desirable  qualities  of  the  Asiatic 
and  the  smaller  races  of  fowls.  Soon  afterward  the  Silver  Wyandotte  appeared.  This  was  a 
combination  of  the  Hamburg  and  Brahma,  and  a  most  attractive  intermediate  between  those 
types. 

A  few  years  before  the  introduction  of  these  "general  purpose  breeds,"  the  Leghorns  had 
been  introduced,  and  they  quickly  distanced  the  older  "every  day  layers"  in  that  field,  while 
with  the  new  Plymouth  Rocks  and  "Wyandottes  they  awakened  a  general  interest  in  poultry  cul- 
ture which  has  enormously  increased  the  volume  of  our  poultry  products,  and  is  still  steadily 
growing. 

The  remarkable  success  of  the  new  class  of  fowls  led  to  an  immediate  multiplication  of  varie- 
ties of  the  same  type  —  if  indeed  some  of  these  ware  not  already  making  when  the  pioneers  of 
each  breed  appeared.  In  a  few  years  more  \ve  h.-id  White  Plymouth  Rocks,  Golden  Wyan- 
dottes, and  White  Wyandottes.  Then  came  Butt"  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Buff  Wyandottes,  and 
after  them  Partridge  Wyandottes,  Silver  Penciled  Wyandottes,  Columbian  Wyandottes,  and 
Partridge  and  Silver  Penciled  Plymouth  Rocks.  Of  the  duration  of  popularity  of  each  of 


these,  and  of  their  rela- 
be  occasion  to  speak  a 
Meantime  the  develop- 
type  of  fowl  have  not 
ties  of  the  two  breeds 
of  the  state  of  Rhode 
serves  a  degree  of  isola- 
of  easy  communication, 
Asiatic  fowls  half  a  cen- 
the  beginning  of  the 
breed,  the  only  one 
portant  place  for  itself 
Rhode  Island  Red.  These 
type  and  characteristics 
and  Wyandottes.  A  s 
fanciers  became  interest- 
pure  bred  fowls,  for 
introduced,  one  farmer 
breed, another  of  another 
general  was  the  mixture 
I.  Reds  a  few  years  ago 


see* 


tive  popularity  there  will 
little  further  on. 
ments  of  this  favorite 
been  limited  to  the  varie- 
mentioned.  In  a  section 
Island  which  still  pre- 
tion  rare  in  these  days 
the  introduction  of 
tury  or  more  ago  marked 
making  of  a  "local" 
which  has  made  an  im- 
in  this  country,  the 
are  fowls  of  the  general 
of  the  Plymouth  Bocks 
commonly  bred  before 
ed  in  them  they  were  not 
foreign  blood  was  often 
using  a  male  of  one 
breed,  and  so  on.  So 
that  in  most  flocks  of  R. 
evidences  of  a  very 


5.  C  Rhode  Island  Red  Cock- 
mixed  ancestry  were  conspicuous.  But  through  all  these  mixtures  a  common  type  was  fol- 
lowed, and  when  fanciers  took  up  the  breed  it  required  only  a  few  seasons  of  careful  breeding 
to  make  them  as  "thoroughbred"  as  most  breeds  have  been  within  the  same  time  after  their 
introduction. 

In  England  the  success  in  America  of  the  medium  sized  general  purpose  type  of  fowl  led  to 
the  development  of  a  breed  of  fowls  much  the  same  in  type,  a  little  more  "beefy,"  as  English 
types  of  poultry  usually  are  when  compared  with  American,  but  still  very  like.  This  breed 
was  called  the  Orpington.  The  object  of  the  originator,  as  repeatedly  stated  by  himself,  was 
to  make  a  breed  of  the  general  type  of  the  Plymouth  Rock  and  Wyandotte,  but  better  suited 
to  English  tastes  and  markets.  The  American  productions  had  the  yellow  legs  and  skin  popular 
i'i  American  markets— the  English  markets  wanted  a  white  skinned  fowl  with  flesh  colored  legs. 


In  considering  the  relative  merits  of  the  many  breeds  and  varieties  in  this  class  of  general 
purpose  fowls,  the  reader  should  always  bear  in  mind  that  they  are  essentially  very  like;  that 
the  differences  between  them  are  mostly  superficial;  that  in  many  cases  differences  observed 
between  the  lots  of  two  different  breeds  or  varieties  of  this  class  when  compared  are  peculiar 
to  the  case  under  consideration,  and  not  general  differences  running  all  through  the  variety  or 
breed.  Hence  as  we  shall  see,  any  one  of  these  varieties  may  be  substituted  for  another  in  any 


90 


LL55ONS   IN    POULTRY   KLLPING  — SE.COND  5LRIL5. 


case  where 
ferences  are  im- 
By  a  super- 
I  mean  a  differ- 
ing productive- 
meut,  or  the 
tionof  the  fowl 
intended.  Such 
lerenee  may  be 
tance  to  one 
and  of  no  i in- 
to another.  For 
color  of  skin  — 
as  it  is  an  index 
tiou,  and  that 
of  color  rather 
ticular  color  — 
do  with  quality 
t  ii  i  s  country 
prefer  ye  How 
and  will  1>  u  y 
readily,  and 
premium  for 
fore  if  one  is 
to  sell  for  table 


superficial  dif- 
luaterial. 
ticial  difference 
ence  not  affect- 
ness  ordevelop- 
actual  adapta- 
for  the  purpose 
asuperficialdif- 
of  great  impor- 
pou 1 tr ym an,. 
portance  at  all 
instance,  t  li  e 
except  in  so  far 
of  good  condi- 
lies  in  quality 
than  in  any  par- 
bas  nothing  to 
of  flesh  —  yet  in 
people  generally 
skinned  fowl.-, 
them  more 
often  will  pay  a 
them.  There- 
growing  fowls 
purposes,  this 


S.   C   fBrown  Leghorns. 

superficial  matter  becomes  for  him  an  essential  matter,  meaning  easier  sales  and  better  profits, 
with  no  difference  in  cost  of  production.  If  he  is  growing  fowls  only  for  his  own  table,  and  has 
no  prejudice  in  the  matter  of  color  of  skin,  it  will  make  no  difference  whether  his  stock 
is  yellow  skinned  or  white  skinned.  Or,  again,  take  the  color  of  plumage:  A  white  or  buff 
fowl  is  easier  to  dress  in  the  pinfeather  stage  than  others.  If  one  is  selling  much  poultry 
this  slight  difference  in  time  and  cost  of  dressing  may  amount  to  a  large  item  in  the  course  of 
a  season,  so  large  an  item  indeed,  that  he  will  prefer  to  keep  only  white  or  buff  fowls;  but  if 
one  is  dressing  only  for  his  own  use,  or  dressing  for  sale  in  small  amounts,  this  advantage 
of  color  may  not  be  of  importance  enough  to  call  for  consideration. 

With  these  two  illustrations  we  will  pass  the  subject  of  superficial  differences.  I  think  that 
what  has  been  said  about  them  will  enable  the  reader  to  see  the  point  without  further  explana- 
tion, in  each  case  of  this  kind  to  which  allusions  will  become  necessary  as  we  discuss  the 
relative  merits  of  the  varieties  of  fowls. 

J* 

Returning  to  our  main  subject :  In  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds, 
and  Orpingtons,  (of  which  there  are  some  eight  or  ten  varieties),  we  have  a  common  type  of 
medium  sized,  active,  hardy,  vigorous  fowl,  a  good  egg  producer,  and  a  good  table  fowl;  we 
have  now  varieties  representing  quite  all  the  colors,  and  combinations  of  colors,  that  have  ever 
been  popular  in  anv  breed  of  fowls.  In  other  words,  we  have  now  fowls  of  this  class  to 
suit  every  taste  in  color. 

Now  on  their  economic  merits  and  their  general  adaptability,  this  class  and  type  of  fowl,  la 
the  comparatively  short  time  since  its  introduction,  has  far  outstripped  all  others  combined. 
Not  only  so,  but  in  each  breed  in  this  class,  (with  the  exception  of  the  Rhode  Island  Red,  of 
which  there  are  but  two  varieties,  differing  only  in  comb),  one  or  two  varieties  have  gained  a 
long  lead  on  all  the  others.  This  means  that  it  is  these  varieties  that  are  best  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  greatest  number  of  poultry  keepers. 

Then  in  the  choice  of  a  breed  the  beginner  who  is  wise  will  not  look  through  the  entire  list, 
and  endeavor  to  select  for  himself  on  the  descriptions  he  may  find.  He  will  rather  consider 
first  the  most  popular  varieties,  assuming  at  the  outset  that  it  is  best  to  take  one  of  these  unless 
for  some  special  reason  another  kind  of  fowl  is  to  be  preferred. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF    PLYMOUTH   ROCKS. 


91 


I  suppose  that  for  nine-tenths  of  those  who  keep  poultry,  a  general  purpose  fowl  is  the  best 
fowl  —  will  be  found  most  satisfactory.  What  proportion  of  this  nine-tenths  are  best  suited 
with  the  most  popular  varieties  of  this  class,  is  not  so  easy  to  estimate,  but  I  should  say  cer- 
tainly three-fifths,  and  possibly  as  much  as  four-fifths.  These  estimates  will  indicate  to  any 
reader  interested  in  the  matter,  something  of  his  "expectation"  of  suiting  himself  better  by 
going  outside  of  the  popular  varieties  of  the  general  purpose  type  of  fowl. 

But  while  the  advantage J/i  general  popularity  is  overwhelmingly  with  one  class  of  fowls,  and 
with  a  few  varieties  in  this  class,  there  is  still  a  large  field  for  the  others,  and  if  the  tendency 
is  for  growers  of  poultry  for  economic  purposes  to  concentrate  on  a  few  varieties,  the  tendency 
among  fanciers  in  quite  opposite,  and  the  number  of  people  open  to  interest  in  other  varieties 
is  always  great  enough  to  make  possible  a  liberal  demand  for  any  fowl  that  has  merit  and 
beautx . 


Coming  now   to  a   detailed   consideration   of  the   varieties  mentioned,  we  have  Plymouth 


Rocks—  Barred,  White, 
'•Standard,"  and  well 
and  Partridge  and  Silver 
recent  introductions, 
not  determined). 
Plymouth  Rock  in  this 
varieties  in  popularity, 
ago  it  was  probably  cor- 
ing both  special  poultry 
some  attention  was  given 
profitable,  and  fanciers' 
Barred  Rocks  in  the 
all  other  thoroughbred 
great  predominance  in 
all  to  their  being  first  in 
superficial  faults:  They 
difficult  to  breed  to  a 
snd  they  had  many  black 
dressed  in  the  pin  feather 
these  drawbacks,  they 
eminence,  because  the 
Rocks  were  lacking  in 


T.,iim*« 


and  Buff,  (which  are 
established  varieties). 
Penciled,  (which  are 
whose  status  is  as  yet 
Of  these,  the  Barred 
country  has  long  led  all 
Until  a  very  few  years 
rect  to  say  that  —  count- 
farms,  farms  on  which 
to  making  poultry 
plants,  there  were  more 
country  at  large  than  of 
fowls  combined.  Their 
numbers  was  due  first  of 
the  field.  They  bad  two 
were,  and  still  are,  very 
high  excellence  in  color; 
p  i  n  feathers  when 
stage.  But  in  spite  of 
long  held  their  pre- 


early  White  Plymouth 

Indian  Game  Hen.  vigor,  and  the  White 

Wyandottes,  which,  in  some  sections,  surpa>sed  the  Barred  Rocks  in  popularity,  were,  on 
the  average,  smaller  fowls,  and  many  breeders  bad  injured  their  stock  by  forcing  early  egg 
production. 

Wuite  Plymouth  Rocks  are  now  fully  equal  to  the  Barred  in  every  economic  quality,  and 
have  the  superficial  advantage  of  color,  which  is  gradually  bringing  them  to  a  popularity 
more  nearly  equal.  As  between  White  and  Barred  Rocks,  choice  hinges  on  taste,  and  on 
whether  easier  preparation  for  market  is  an  advantage.  It  is  when  many  chicks  are  to  be 
dres;.ed  in  the  pin  feather  stage.  When  stock  is  not  dressed  until  mature  —  as  is  the  case  on 
most  farms  —  the  white  color  is  no  advantage. 

Buff  Plymouth  Rocks  are  quite  popular,  but  not  so  much  so,  nor  with  such  promise  of 
permanent  general  popularity  as  the  Barred  and  White.  Their  most  serious  fault,  from  the 
average  breeder's  point  of  view,  is  that  common  to  all  buff  and  red  fowls —  the  wide  departure 
from  approved  shade  of  color  even  when  bred  with  great  care  and  good  judgment  to  maintain 
color.  To  the  fancier  this  may  not  be  a  fault.  Those  who  admire  buff  fowls,  and  find  pleasure 
in  producing  them,  will  readily  sacrifice  the  culls,  but  a  poultryman  not  especially  interested  in 
the  fancy  will  not  long  be  suited  with  buff  or  red  fowls  if  he  wants  uniform  appearance  in  bi» 
flocks,  for  he  cannot  afford  to  sacrifice  off  colored  bens.  If  he  is  indifferent  to  lack  of  uniform 


92  LE.S50NS  IN    POULTRY   KLLPING  —  SECOND  5LRILS. 

appearance   he   will    not  count 
this  fault  against  them. 

Partridge  and  Silver  Penciled 
Plymouth  Rocks  are  very  band- 
some  fowls,  but  at  present 
require  great  skill  in  breeding. 
Like  all  laced  and  penciled 
fowls,  they  will  always  be 
difficult  for  most  breeders  to 
handle,  and  if  their  popularity, 
as  compared  with  the  other 
varieties  'of  the  breed,  follows 
the  same  course  as  that  of  simi- 
lar colored  varieties  in  the  old 
breeds,  they  are  not  likely  to 
come  into  a  general  and  lasting 
popularity,  but  will  be  bred 
mostly  by  those  who  want  gen- 
Houdans.  eral  purpose  fowls  with  single 

<  ombs,  and  have  a  decided  preference  for  one  of  these  colors. 

In  Wyandottes  we  have,  naming  them  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  admitted  to  the 
"Standard,"  the  Silver  Laced,  Golden  Laced,  White,  Black,  Buff,  Partridge  or  Golden  Penciled, 
Silver  Penciled,  and  Columbian. 

The  typical  Wyandotte,  as  compared  with  the  typical  Plymouth  Rock,  is  a  shorter  bodied, 
compact,  blocky  fowl,  and  a  little  smaller  fowl.  But  many  breeders  of  Wyandottes  breed 
them  as  large  as  Standard  Plymouth  Rocks,  and  larger  than  the  general  run  of  Plymouth 
Rocks,  while  It  is  probably  true  that  Wyandottes  as  they  run  are  smaller  than  Plymouth 
Rocks  as  they  run.  The  difference  in  size  is  one  which  any  breeder  of  either  variety  who 
chooses  to  do  so  may  easily  overcome  breeding  Wyandottes  to  Plymouth  Rock  weights,  and 
vice  versa,  so  that  for  general  use  we  may  sny  that  there  is  no  material  difference  in  size 
between  Rocks  and  Wyandottes.  The  real  differences  in  this  respect  are,  that  the  most  sym- 
metrical fowl  In  each  breed  is  likely  to  be  the  fowl  about  standard  weight  and  size  for  the 
breed.  Wyandottes  of  Plymouth  Rock  weights  are  apt  to  be  a  little  coarse  and  "cochinny ;" 
Plymouth  Rocks  at  Wyandotte  weights  a  little  undersized.  From  this  it  follows  that  if  a 
poultryrnan  wants  fowls  which  we  may  term  small  medium  in  size,  be  can  get  them  in  Wyan- 
dottes without  departing  as  far  from  a  good  type  as  he  would  if  be  tried  to  breed  Rocks  to 
the  same  weights.  Conversely,  if  he  wants  large  medium  fowls  he  can  get  them  in  extra 
large  Plymouth  Rocks,  which  will  be  a  little  coarse,  but  not  so  far  away  from  the  breed  type  as 
if  he  'tried  to  get  as  large  fowls  in  Wyandottes.  In  egg  production  there  is  practically  no 
difference  in  average  number  of  eggs  laid.  The  Wyandotte  eggs  average  a  little  smaller,  as 
would  be  expected,  but  the  difference  in  this  respect  is  not  important. 

As  between  the  different  varieties  of  the  Wyandotte,  the  White  is  by  far  the  most  popular, 
ranking  as  one  of  the  few  most  popular  fowls.  The  Buff,  though  far  behind  the  White,  comes 
next  in  popularity,  and  so  far  these  are  the  only  varieties  of  the  breed  to  gain  and  bold  any 
great  popularity,  though  all  the  laced  and  penciled  varieties  have  had  their  booms,  and  have 
maintained  a  following  large  enough  to  keep  them  well  in  the  public  eye.  The  Black  Wyan- 
dotte hits  never  attracted  much  attention.  The  Columbian  Wyandotte  is  by  many  regarded  as 
a  "coming"  variety.  Being  a  white  fowl  with  black  points  like  the  Light  Brahma,  it  will 
dress  like  a  white  fowl. 

Of  all  these  varieties  the  White  furnishes  the  greater  proportion  of  specimens  of  good  size 
and  with  true  Wyandotte  shape.  This  Is  because  more  people  are  interested  in  it,  and  more 
of  those  interested  in  it  are  especially  interested  in  market  poultry  culture. 

Of  H/iode  Island  Reds  there  are,  as  has  been  said,  two  varieties  differing  only  in  the  shape 
of  the  comb,  one  having  a  single,  the  other  a  rose  comb.  Taking  the  average  Reds  as  we  find 
them,  the  single  combed  variety  might  —  on  its  looks  —  be  termed  a  Red  Plymouth  Rock,  and 


THL    MLDITLRRANLAN    CLASS. 


93 


the  rose  combed  variety  a  Red 
Wyandotte.  Fanciers  of  Red& 
try  to  make  the  Rhode  Island 
Red  of  a  shape  intermediate 
between  Plymouth  Rocks  and 
Wyandottes,  but  as  the  reader 
who  examines  many  specimens 
of  the  three  breeds  will  find,  the 
breed  shape  is  still  very  rare  in 
the  Reds.  As  a  matter  of  his- 
torical fact,  the  first  Buff  Ply- 
mouth and  Buff  Wyandottps- 
exhibited  were  Rhode  Island 
Reds,  and  a  good  part  of  the 
stock  of  both  these  Buff  varie- 
ties is  of  Rhode  Island  Red 


In  Rhode  Island  Reds,  then, 
we  have  two  more  varieties  of 
Silver  Spangled  Hamburg,.  the  medium  sized  general  pur- 

pose fowl,  not  essentially  different  from  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyandottes  in  practical  qualities. 

It  is  from  the  varieties  of  the  three  breeds  just  described  that  most  poultnmen  will  make 
choice  of  the  fowl  that  suits  them,  and  whatever  else  they  may  begin  with  or  try,  most  poul- 
try  men  will  eventually  settle  on  a  variety  of  this  class.  All  these  breeds  have,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  an  occasional  stock,  the  brooding  faculties  active.  All  lay  tinted  eggs  varying  from 
rich  creamy  color  to  very  dark  "brown."  All  are  easily  handled,  and  give  fair  to  good  results 
when  fed  and  cared  for  with  ordinary  good  judgment  and  regularity. 

The  Buff  Orpington  is  the  only  variety  of  that  breed  at  all  generally  introduced  into  this 
country.  Without  denying  it  as  great  economic  merit  as  any  variety  of  the  American  class. 
and  admitting  that  as  seen  on  exhibition  Orpingtons  have  generally  shown  better  table  form 
than  the  American  varieties  at  the  same  shows,  one  is  quite  safe  In  predicting  that  their  general 
effect  on  the  varieties  with  which  they  come  Into  competition  will  be  to  improve  rather  than  to 
displace  them.  The  other  varieties  of  Orpingtons,  Black,  White,  and  Spangled,  have  attracted 
little  attention  here  outside  the  circle  of  enthusiastic  Orpington  exhibitors.  Considered  as  a 
commercially  popular  fowl,  the  question  of  the  popularity  of  Orpingtons  in  this  country  turns 
on  the  question  of  the  continuance  of  American  prejudice  in  favor  of  yellow  skinned  table 
poultry.  If  one  can  convince  himself  that  this  is  passing  he  may  see  a  large  popularity  coming 
for  the  Orpingtons.  Otherwise  he  is  likely  to  believe  that  the  American  varieties  will  continue 
to  give  general  satisfaction. 

Next  to  the  American  class  in  popularity  comes  the  Mediterranean  class,  comprising  Leg- 
horns, Minorcas,  Spanish,  Andalu&ians,  and  Anconas.  These  all  lay  white  eggs,  and  are  non- 
sitters. 

Lcfjhorns.  In  these  there  are  seven  varieties,  of  which  only  two  have  a  broad  popularity  — 
the  S.  C.  Brown  and  the  S.  C.  White.  Of  the  two  the  White  seems  to  be  most  popular  through- 
out the  territory  which  contributes  New  York  city's  supply  of  fancy  white  eggs.  Throughout 
the  rest  of  the  country  the  Browns  are  generally  more  numerous.  The  Single  Comb  Buff  Leg- 
horn made  very  rapid  advances  in  popularity  for  a  while,  but  then  went  backward.  The  rose 
combed  varieties  of  the  colors  mentioned  have  never  approached  the  single  combs  in  popularity, 
though  the  Whites  and  Browns  are  quite  well  distributed.  Black  Leghorns  are  not  often  seen, 
and  the  Silver  Duckwings  are  still  more  rare. 

The  Leghorns'  chief  claim  to  attention  is  their  laying  propensity.  They  lay  better  under 
Indifferent  cure,  except  in  early  winter,  than  any  fowls  not  of  their  class,  and  except  when 
frost  is  severe  enough  to  affect  their  large  combs  they  are  reasonably  hardy.  Average  Leghorns 
are  too  small  to  be  of  much  value  as  market  poultry.  Many  breeders  breed  to  a  size  to  mate 


94  LL55ONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  5ERIE5. 

their  Leghorn  chicks,  and  young  hens  compare  favorably  with  ordinary  stock  of  the  American 
breeds,  but  the  average  Leghorn  is  a  very  poor  table  fowl. 

The  Black  Minorcas  are  the  next  breed  in  this  class  in  popularity,  though  far  behind  the 
popular  varieties  of  Leghorns  in  this  respect.  Ordinary  Minorcas  as  found  distributed  through- 
out the  country  do  not  differ  greatly  from  Leghorns.  Indeed  it  is  not  an  unheard  of  thing  for 
breeders  to  supply  customers  with  Black  Leghorns  and  Black  Minorcas  from  the  same  pens. 
Typical  Black  Minorcas,  as  bred  in  the  sections  where  they  are  most  popular  are  medium  large 
fowls,  sometimes  as  large  as  Plymouth  Rocks;  are  good  layers  of  very  large  white  eggs,  and 
are  fine  table  fowls  for  home  use,  though  their  white  skin  and  dark  legs  are  not  in  favor  in 
most  markets. 

Andalusians  and  Anconas  do  not  differ  much  in  anything  but  color,  from  Leghorns.  The 
Andalusian  is  a  trifle  more  on  the  Minorca  type;  the  Ancona  on  the  Leghorn  type.  The 
Andal'iaian  is  a  slaty  blue  in  color,  and  very  difficult  to  breed  to  standard  color  requirements. 
The  Ancona  is  a  mixed  (speckled)  black  and  white  fowl.  Both  have  their  admirers,  and  the 
Andalusian  in  particular  is  given  a  good  deal  of  attention  by  fanciers.  They  may  be  rated  as 
fowls  for  the  fancier  and  amateur  rather  than  for  those  looking  for  the  most  suitable  fowl 
lor  commercial  purposes. 

The  Black  Spanish  are  practically  extinct,  except  in  the  hands  of  a  few  fanciers. 

Of  much  the  same  general  type  as  the  Leghorns  are  the  Hamburgs  and  Polish.  Varieties  of 
4>oth  breed*  were  popular  before  the  introduction  of  the  Leghorns,  but  being  generally  less 
hardy,  more  difficult  to  keep  and  rear,  and  lacking  the  yellow  legs  and  skin  which  our 
markets  prefer,  they  were  rapidly  crowded  into  the  background  on  the  advent  of  the  Leghorns. 
They  are  stil  bred  by  many  fanciers,  and  seen  in  considerable  numbers  at  some  shows. 
Most  Hamburgs  are  so  small  as  to  be  of  little  practical  value.  A  few  breeders  maintain  good 
size,  and  a  type  that  is  well  suited  both  for  egg  production  and  for  the  family  table.  The 
Polish  fowls,  though  small,  are  generally  plump  and  meaty.  They  are  good  layers  under 
favorable  conditions,  but  their  large  crests  make  them  very  susceptible  to  colds  and  roup 
when  exposed  to  wet  weather. 

In  the  Asiatic  class  we  have  another  group  of  fowls  generally  crowded  out  by  the  "  genera! 
purpose"  fowls.  The  Asiatics,  of  which  there  are  three  breeds  —  Brahtuas,  Cochins,  and 
Langshans  —  are  large  fowls  —  too  large  for  general  market  demands,  and  among  those  keeping 
fowls  for  commercial  purposes  are  bred  mostly  for  special  markets.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Light  Brahma,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Asiatics  are  of  no  economic  importance  today,  and 
it  occupies  a  very  limited  field.  Light  Brahmas  in  a  few  localities  are  produced  in  very  large 
numbers  for  large  roasting  fowls.  They  are  the  largest  of  fowls,  and  as  it  takes  them  so  long 
to  attain  full  size,  they  remain  soft  meated  much  longer  than  fowls  of  the  smaller  breeds. 
With  judicious  management  they  are  good  layers,  but  comparatively  few  poultrymen  su«ceed 
in  getting  satisfactory  egg  yields  from  any  Asiatic  fowls.  The  Langshan,  the  smallest  of  the 
group,  is  the  best  layer  under  ordinary  management,  but  its  color,  (black,  the  White  Langshan 
has  never  become  well  known),  is  against  it  for  market  poultry.  An  objection,  in  most 
section*,  to  all  Asiatic  fowls,  is  the  foot  feathering.  Wherever  the  soil  is  heavy  and  there  is 
much  wet  weather,  or  where  these  fowls  are  not  provided  with  houses  where  the  floors  are  dry 
and  littered  with  material  that  will  quickly  absorb  the  water  in  the  foot  feathers  after  they 
have  been  out  on  wet  ground,  this  foot  feathering  is  really  a  fault.  Asiatics  are  the  most  docile 
of  fowls  and  the  hardiest,  but  unless  one  gives  them  plenty  of  room  and  uses  judgment  in 
handling  them  he  will  not  get  as  good  results  from  them  as  from  fowls  of  the  American  class 
for  any  purpose.  In  the  hands  of  those  who  understand  them  they  are  good  layers  —  compar- 
ing favorably  with  any  other  breed,  but  the  average  poultry  keeper  gets  very  few  eggs  from 
them,  and  soon  changes  to  a  breed  easier  to  handle. 

In  our  "  Standard  of  Perfection"  Dorkings,  Red  Caps,  and  Orpingtons  are  grouped  together 
In  the  "  English  "  class,  though  the  three  breeds  are  of  distinctly  different  types.  The  Dorking 
is  an  English  production  of  great  antiquity.  The  Red  Cap  is  perhaps  best  described  as  a  fowl 
of  the  Hamburg  class  bred  to  large  size,  while  the  Orpington,  as  has  been  seen,  is  an  English 
translation  of  the  type  which  prevails  in  the  American  class. 

Red  Caps  are  rarely  seen  in  this  country.    Dorkings  are  found  in  considerable  numbers  at 


LCONOMIC  QUALITIES  OF  GAME.   FOWLS.  ,v:>   ^  95 

some  of  the  leading  shows,  and  in  Canada  are  quite  extensively  kept  as  farm  fowls.  They  are 
commonly  reputed  indifferent  layers  and  rather  delicate.  I  kept  a  small  ftock  secured  from  a 
Canadian  breeder  for  several  years,  and  in  this  limited  experience  with  one  stock  found  them 
hardy  and  good  layers.  As  table  poultry  the  Dorking  has  long  ranked  as  of  finest  quality,  and 
fully  deserves  its  reputation. 

Houdans  are  the  only  French  breed  well  known  in  this  country.  They  are  as  good  layers  as 
Leghorns,  and  first  class  in  table  quality,  but  not  as  rugged  as  is  desirable  for  fowls  for  general 
use.  Like  the  Polish,  they  have  heavy  crests  which  to  many  are  objectionable.  The  color  of 
their  skin  (white)  and  their  dark  legs  are  also  against  them  as  market  fowls. 

In  Game  fowls  we  have  three  distinct  types  —  the  Pit  Game,  the  Exhibition  Game,  and  the 
Indian  Game.  The  Pit  Game  fowl  is  practically  the  Game  fowl  as  it  has  been  bred  for 
centuries  in  England,  with  perhaps  a  little  more  differentiation  in  colors.  The  Exhibition 
Game  is  a  long  legged,  long  necked,  exaggerated  Pit  Game,  which  has  no  place  outside  the 
exhibition  room  and  the  yards  of  the  fancier.  Pit  Games  are  really  valuable  economic  fowls  as 
fur  as  productiveness  and  quality  go,  though  not  to  be  classed  for  general  purposes  with  the 
breeds  of  the  American  class.  Perhaps  their  greatest  fault  from  economic  standpoints  is  their 
"gameness,"  —  their  pugnacity,  and  quarrelsomeness.  These  are  qualities  destructive  to  com- 
fortable and  profitable  work  with  poultry,  and  the  Game  as  a  farm  or  practical  fowl,  soon  dis- 
jippears  from  sections  where  the  economic  value  of  a  fowl  becomes  the  first  consideration  with 
poultry  keepers. 

The  Indian  Game  is  a  larger  and  meatier  type  of  fowl  than  either  of  the  others,  and,  as 
bred  in  England  and  America,  is  less  pugnacious.  I  think  it  should  be  regarded  as  a  useful 
type  temporarily  somewhat  neglected  because  of  the  disappointments  which  followed  its  intro- 
duction to  the  American  public,  with  widely  exaggerated  reports  of  its  laying  and  table 
qualities. 

Of  course  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  discuss  in  a  single  lesson  exhaustively  the  qualities  and 
adaptabilities  of  all  these  breeds  and  their  several  varieties.  As  I  said  near  the  beginning  of 
the  lesson,  the  poultry  keeper  should  limit  consideration  of  varieties  to  the  few  popular  general 
purpose  breeds  unless  there  are  special  reasons  for  not  doing  so.  The  most  general  illustrations 
of  exceptions  to  this  rule  may  be  found  where  one  is  going  into  some  special  branch  of  poultry 
culture,  as  the  production  of  white  eggs  for  the  New  York  city  trade,  or  the  production  of 
large  roasting  chickens  for  the  Boston  market.  Even  in  these  exceptions,  the  principle  of  the 
rule  I  have  given  applies,  and  the  poultryman  should  follow  custom,  and  take  the  breed,  or  one 
of  the  breeds  most  popular  among  those  in  the  line  in  which  he  is  engaging. 


96  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SLCOND  SLRiLX 


LESSON     I X  . 


Stocking   the   Poultry    Plant. 


IN  THE  last  lesson  the  different  varieties  of  poultry  were  described,  and  their  adaptability 
to  different  conditions  and  purposes  discussed.  In  this  lesson  we  take  up  a  number 
of  questions  in  which  beginners,  wherever  located,  or  whatever  their  objects,  are  about 
equally  interested. 

How  Many  Breeds  or  Varieties  Should  a  Poultryman   Keep? 

Those  who  have  been  long  in  the  business  are  generally  agreed  that  one  variety  is  better 
than  more  —  is  enough.  Even  those  who  keep  several  or  many  varieties  are  quite  unanimously 
of  the  opinion  that  it  is  better  to  start  with  a  single  variety,  and  to  limit  oneself  to  that  one 
variety.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow  from  their  taking  this  position  with  reference  to  what 
it  is  best  for  one  beginning  now  to  do,  that  it  is  also  better  for  one  who  has  several  or 
numerous  varieties  of  fowls  to  drop  all  but  one. 

Granted  that  it  might  have  been  better  not  to  keep  more  than  one  variety,  it  still  is  true 
that  when  the  thing  that  was  not  best  has  been  done,  conditions  are  sometimes  created  which 
make  it  better  policy  to  keep  on  as  one  has  begun  than  to  change  to  the  more  approved  situ- 
ation. 

A  breeder  of  several  varieties  who  has  established  a  trade  in  each,  cannot  drop  any  of  them 
without  letting  go  trade  which  it  cost  him  something  to  secure,  and  he  cannot  afford  to  let  such 
trade  go  unless  he  is  reasonably  sure  that  increased  sales  from  the  variety  he  retains  will 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  trade  which  follows  the  dropping  of  the  others.  The  beginner'* 
situation  is  different.  He  can  take  the  one  variety  of  his  choice,  and  concentrate  all  his  efforts 
on  securing  a  tine  stock  of  that  variety,  and  building  up  a  trade  in  it.  If  he  is  successful  in 
the  first,  and  hits  ordinary  good  business  ability,  he  can  hardly  fail  to  succeed  ultimately  in  the 
second.  In  the  earlier  days  of  poultry  culture  it  may  sometimes  have  been  good  policy  to  start 
with  several  breeds;  as  to  that,  opinions  differ.  But  of  late  years  trade  tends  more  and  more 
to  go  to  "  specialists  " — that  is,  to  breeders  making  a  specialty  of  a  single  variety,  and  in  the 
stronger  competition  for  exhibition  honors,  and  for  business  that  exists  today,  the  man  of 
several  breeds  is  more  apt  to  be  crowded  aside  by  competitors,  and  neglected  by  purcha>ei -s. 
He  finds  it  harder  to  win  a  satisfactory  share  of  the  prizes  where  in  each  variety  he  keeps  he 
has  to  contend  with  men  of  equa'l  or  greater  skill  in  breeding  who  are  applying  to  that  one 
variety  as  much  skill  as  he  has  to  divide  among  two,  three,  or  a  half  a  dozen,  and  to  add  to 
his  difficulties,  buyers  generally  prefer  to  buy  of  the  man  who  keeps  but  one  breed.  The 
reasons  some  have  for  doing  this  are  fallacious,  but  it  is  the  condition  of  which  the  breeder 
must  take  account.  He  can  adjust  his  business  to  conditions  much  more  readily  than  he  can 
change  conditions  to  fit  his  ideas  of  how  business  should  be  done. 

Beginners  often  think  it  advisable  to  keep  two  varieties  of  different  classes  and  types  to  meet 
different  demands  or  serve  different  purposes.  The  most  common  cases  are  to  keep  large  fowls 
for  table  purposes  and  small  fowls  for  laying;  and  to  keep  fowls  of  the  Asiatic  or  American 
breeds  for  winter  layers,  and  Leghorns  for  summer  layers.  Usually  they  find  that  results  do 


ORDINARY  GOOD  STOCK  FOR   BLGINNLR5.  97 

not  justify  the  arrangement.  The  special  adaptabilities  of  the  different  breeds  to  different  pur- 
poses are  more  theoretical  ur  fancied  than  real.  Thus  Leghorns,  though  easier  to  get  eggs  from 
than  heavier  breeds,  aud  generally  steadier  layers  in  summer  because  they  are  non-sitters, 
frequently  surprise  the  man  who  would  keep  them  for  summer  layers,  by  laying  as  well  in 
winter  as  his  supposed  winter  layers,  while  the  difference  between  the  two  kinds  for  the  year 
may  be  insignificant.  The  fact  is  that  in  general  the  different  breeds  lay  about  alike  when 
given  good  care  —  such  as  those  trying  to  make  poultry  pay  commonly  give  their  fowls,  and  in 
time  the  poultryman  realizes  that  the  few  practical  advantages  of  keeping  two  types  of  fouls 
are  about  offset  by  the  disadvantage  of  having  to  maintain  two  stocks,  and  the  frequent  incon- 
venience in  adapting  the  accommodation*  to  the  different  habits  of  the  fowls. 

What    Quality    of    Stock? 

The  next  question  of  interest  to  the  beginner  is  the  quality  of  stock  to  buy.  Beginners 
usually  purchase  low  priced  stock  —  that  is,  low  priced  from  the  fancier's  standpoint.  From 
the  beginner's  point  of  view,  two  or  three  dollars  for  a  female,  and  three  to  five  dollars  for  a 
male  is  extravagance.  He  may  pay  such  prices,  but  prefers  not  to  let  his  acquaintances  not 
much  interested  in  poultry  know  the  amounts.  Occasionally  a  beginner  will  pay  much  higher 
prices.  If  financially  able  to  do  so,  beginners  often  buy  the  highest  priced  birds.  Their  idea 
is  that  by  so  doing  they  buy  a  place  and  a  standing  among  the  foremost  breeders. 

There  certainly  is  an  advantage  in  buying  high  quality  stock,  and  it  may  be  from  every  con- 
sideration the  best  policy  for  one  who  is  financially  able  to  do  so,  and  who  knows  how  to  main- 
tain its  quality.  It  is  on  the  latter  point  that  most  beginners  fail.  No  money  can  buy  skill  in 
breeding  except  money  which  may  be  paid  to  a  breeder  for  birds  he  has  produced,  or  as  salary. 
His  goods  and  his  services  may  be  bought  if  he  is  willing  to  part  with  them  for  a  consideration, 
but  this  kind  of  knowledge  and  skill  is  not  to  be  had  separate  from  individuals  who  have  it. 

As  we  saw  in  the  lessons  on  breeding,  it  requires  quite  as  careful  selection  to  maintain  excel- 
lence in  fowls  as  it  did  to  secure  it.  In  unskillful  hands  the  best  of  stocks  are  apt  to  deteriorate 
rapidly.  A  single  season  of  unskillful  management  of  the  breeding  stock  may  put  the  stock  of 
the  man  who  bought  the  highest  priced  birds  he  could  get  on  a  level  with  that  of  one  who 
bought  much  cheaper  stock.  Unless  one  is  in  a  position  to  get  expert  services  in  mating  bis 
Block  it  is  as  well  for  him  not  to  pay  extremely  high  prices.  1  would  not  say  that  he  should 
limit  himself  to  the  lower  figures  I  have  mentioned.  He  might  go  several  times  as  high,  and  if 
he  proves  an  apt  student  of  mating  problems  and  successful  in  growing  chicks,  have  results 
that  justify  the  larger  expenditure  for  stock,  but  as  a  rule  the  poultryman  who  buys  extra  good 
stock  at  the  start  does  not  establish  his  stock  on  that  foundation.  The  rule  is  that  in  his  inex- 
perience and  unskillfulness  his  first  stock  goes  back,  and  when  he  realizes  this  and  sees  where 
and  why  he  failed  he  buys  anew  for  foundation  stock,  and  on  this  stock  bought  when  he  has  a 
measure  of  experience  to  show  him  how  to  use  it,  he  builds  up  bis  permanent  line.  Hence  in 
buying  ordinary  good  stock  at  about  the  range  of  prices  mentioned,  the  beginner  with  poultry 
is  s'Qiply  applying  the  common  principle  in  use  wherever  people  work  with  materials  which 
may  be  damaged  or  lost  in  manipulation,  of  using  rather  cheap  material  to  experiment  with. 

Beginning  With  Stock  or  Eggs. 

The  determination  of  this  question  is  settled  in  part  by  the  season  when  tbe«beginning  is 
made— people  are  going  into  poultry  keeping  at  all  seasons.  Unless  the  start  is  making  dui  ing 
the  late  winter  or  spring,  that  is,  during  the  hatching  season,  beginning  with  eggs  would  not  be 
considered  (except  in  the  hatching  of  winter  chickens,  in  which  line,  as  stated,  most  growers 
buy  their  eggs  for  hatching).  For  those  beginning  at  times  when  the  stttrt  might  be  made  with 
either  stock  or  eggs,  it  is  often  a  puzzle  to  decide  which  way  to  begin.  Results  by  either 
method  of  starting  are  so  variable  that  one  has  to  be  cautious  about  making  positive  recom- 
mendations, but  I  believe  that  the  greater  number  of  satisfactory  beginnings  are  made  from 
stock.  Perhaps  as  good  away  as  any  is  to  try  both  ways,  —  divide  the  amount  available  fur 
the  purpose,  buy  a  few  fowls,  and  invest  the  rest  in  eggs.  Though  there  is  no  sureness  about 
results,  unless  luck  goes  entirely  against  the  beginner,  he  is  likely  to  get  some  good  chickens 
from  fowls  mated  as  they  were  sent  him  by  the  breeder  from  whom  he  bought  them.  But  in 
buying  eggs  there  is  always  the  possibility  of  getting  a  good  hatch  and  a  lot  of  exceptionally 


98  LL550N5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  — 5LCOND  5LRIL5. 

good  chicks  at  a  cost  away  below  what  birds  of  the  same  quality  could  be  bought  for  at  matur- 
ity. This  chance  is  attractive  enough  to  make  most  of  us  risk  the  total  failure  which  comes  to 
the  buyer  of  eggs  about  as  often  as  a  satisfactory  hatch  of  chicks  that  turn  out  well. 

Buying  young  chickens  is  much  like  buying  eggs  except  that  the  uncertainty  of  hatching  is 
eliminated  as  far  as  the  existence  of  the  number  of  chicks  desired  is  concerned.  The  chicks 
are  shipped  before  it  begins  to  appear  whether  they  would  generally  live  and  thrive,  and  the 
results  at  the  end  of  the  season  are  likely  to  average  only  a  little  better  than  with  eggs.  That 
little,  however,  is  an  inducement  to  many  to  buy  new  hatched  chicks  rather  than  eggs. 

It  is  not  possible  to  eliminate  risks  in  starting,  or  —  for  that  matter,  at  any  stage  of  the  pro- 
ceedings. Whichever  way  one  elects  to  begin,  or  if  he  prefers  to  try  them  all,  there  is  risk  of 
failure  to  succeed  in  any  of  the  attempt". 

Nowhere  is  persistence  more  nece.-sary  than  in  efforts  to  get  a  start  with  stock  of  poultry  of 
the  kind  one  desin  s.  In  what  follows  I  shall  try  by  suggestions  and  advice  to  help  each  begin- 
ner to  avoid  mistakes,  but  1  cannot  as>ure  him  of  any  way  of  certainly  avoiding  them.  I  made 
the  common  mistake  myself,  of  beginning  with  a  number  of  varieties,  and  made  no  more  than 
the  average  number  of  mistakes  in  buying,  yet  it  took  rne  two  to  three  seasons  to  get  a  good 
start  — just  a  start  with  a  few  birds  in  most  varieties,  and  '  some  it  took  longer  than  that. 

In  many  cases  the  question  as  to  beginning  with  eggs  or  stock  is  better  answered  by  consider- 
ing it  with  the  question, 

Where  to   Buy. 

The  greater  number  of  novices  in  poultry  culture  seem  to  think  they  can  buy  better  stock, 
whether  in  birds  or  eggs  by  sending  to  some  breeder  at  a  distance  for  it.  They  see  the  i'aults— 
some  of  them  —  in  the  stock  of  nearby  breeders  whose  yards  they  visit.  The  stock  they  do  not 
*«ee  they  judge  by  the  breeder's  advertisement  and  descriptive  literature  which  rarely  admit 
that  the  stock  has  any  serious  faults,  and  his  correspondence,  which  only  occasionally  refers  to 
the  weak  points  in  the  stock,  and  then  minimizes,  faults  more  than  a  disinterested  person 
would.  Common  sense  might  teach  even  the  novice  in  poultry  transactions  to  discount  liberally 
the  salesman's  enthusiastic  recommendations  of  his  goods,  but  apparently  only  experience  in 
buying  teaches  this  lesson  effectively,  and  the  average  beginner  in  buying  poultry  will  pass  by 
his  neighbors  and  cheerfully  pay  a  litlle  higher  price,  plus  a  heavy  express  charge,  for  stock  no 
better  than  he  could  get  close  by. 

I  would  not  have  any  reader  conclude  that  there  is  never  an  advantage  in  buying  from  a  dis- 
tance, for  there  often  is  a  great  advantage  in  it,  but  when  buying  stock  of  ordinary  grades,  if 
you  have  an  opportunity  to  buy  from  a  nearby  breeder  whose  stock  }  ou  can  inspect,  within  ihe 
range  of  prices  mentioned  earlier  in  this  lesson,  the  chances  are  that  you  will  be  better  satisfied 
in  the  end  than  if  you  send  the  same  amount  of  money  for  the  same  number  of  birds  to  a 
breeder  at  a  distance.  After  one  begins  to  be  able  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  his  stock,  to  know 
v.  here  it  is  weak,  and  to  know  something  about  the  characteristics  of  different  stocks  of  the 
frame  variety,  it  will  be  his  best  policy  to  buy  what  be  needs  where  he  can  get  what  suits  him 
best,  but  a  considerable  part  of  the  present  buying  away  from  home  is  of  no  benefit  to. anyone 
hut  tlie  transportation  companies.  If  every  poultry  keeper  who  had  not  a  good  reason  for 
frending  away  for  breeding  stock  and  eggs  for  batching  would  buy  at  home,  sellers  generally 
would  sell  as  much  as  they  do  now,  and  the  business  would  be  on  a  much  better  ba^is. 

There  is  another  and  a  strong  reason  for  the  novice  buying  his  first  stock  in  his  own  locality 
if  pos>ible.  Fowls,  like  all  kinds  of  live  stock,  and  like  human  beings  too,  are  with  few  excep- 
tions affected  by  change  of  climate.  Nearly  all  fowls  are  unfavorably  affected  for  a  time  —  for 
a  few  weeks  or  months.  After  that  some  are  likely  to  be  better  for  the  change,  some  worse, 
others  not  notably  affected  either  way.  On  the  whole  the  period  of  acclimatization  is  an 
unsettled  period,  and  the  beginner  will  almost  invariably  do  better  to  work  with  acclimated 
stock.  v 

But  not  all  beginners  can  buy  stock  at  home.  There  are  still  many  localities  in  which  thor- 
oughbred stock  is  rare.  Within  a  few  years  I  have  had  a  letter  from  a  poultryman  in  a  section 
where  a  show,  at  which  he  was  an  exhibitor,  had  been  held  annually  for  several  years,  asking 
for  a  description  of  White  Wyandottes,  one  of  our  most  popular  varieties,  and  stating  that 


BUYING  FOWLS  ON  APPROVAL.  99 

they  were  unknown  in  that  vicinity.  So,  while  our  popular  varieties  are  quite  well  distributed 
there  are  still  many  places  where  they  are  not  to  be  had.  The  beginner  located  in  such  a  place 
must  go  or  send  abroad  for  stock.  If  it  is  at  all  possible  for  him  to  go  himself  to  yards  where 
stock  of  the  variety  he  wants  is  to  be  procured,  it  will  pay  him  to  do  so.  He  can  then  see  how 
the  stock  he  buys  compares  with  other  specimens  of  the  same  stock,  and  have  a  better  idea  of 
its  actual  quality.  Seeing  the  stock  as  it  grows,  he  will  also  better  appreciate  the  variations  in 
it,  and  be  better  able  to  judge  of  the  general  quality  of  the  stock  he  produces  from  it. 

If  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  inspect  and  select  his  stock,  and  he  must  buy  by  mail,  be  will 
still  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  buy  as  near  home  as  possible.  By  doing  this  he  saves  express, 
and,  further,  when  the  express  charges  do  not  constitute  too  large  a  proportion  of  the  cost  of 
the  fowls  delivered,  he  can  return  the  fowls  if  not  satisfactory. 

Sometimes  in  making  shipments  a  breeder  will  agree  to  pay  return  express  on  a  lot  of  birds 
not  found  satisfactory,  but  in  general  the  buyer  pays  express  both  ways.  There  is  room  for  an 
argument  as  to  what  is  fair  in  such  ca>es.  1  think  the  best  way  for  a  buyer  to  look  at  it  is  this: 
—If  he  bought  the  fowls  himself  at  the  breeder's  yards,  whatever  the  distance  from  his  home, 
he  would  not  expect  the  breeder  to  pay  his  traveling  expenses,  or  any  part  of  them.  He  buys 
"on  approval,"  because  of  the  inconvenience  or  expense  of  going  to  see  the  fowls.  He  should 
then  consider  return  express  charges  on  unsatisfactory  birds  as  an  expense  arising.from  his 
inability  to  inspect  the  stock  before  buying,  and  not  an  expense  on  account  of  the  breeder's 
failure  to  send  him  stock  that  would  suit,  and  therefore  an  expense  for  which  not  he  but  the 
breeder  is  responsible.  If  the  buyer  will  look  at  the  matter  in  that  way  he  will  enjoy  more 
peace  of  mind  than  if  he  resents  the  payment  of  return  express  as  an  imposition  for  which  the 
party  who  sent  him  the  fowls  is  responsible. 

In  deciding  from  whom  to  order  stock  by  mail,  H  beginner  is  necessarily  very  much  in  the 
<lark.  Many  write  to  me  for  advice,  information,  and  sometimes- recommendations  in  this 
matter,  saying  that  their  resources  are  limited,  and  they  cannot  a  fiord  to  make  any  mistakes.  I 
can  appreciate  their  position,  and  also  approve  the  caution  they  display.  At  the  same  time  I 
know  of  no  way  of  avoiding  "mistakes"  in  buying  stock.  I  have  been  buying  fowls,  some- 
times a  good  many  and  sometimes  only  one  or  two  in  a  season,  for  sixteen  years  now,  and  I  am 
somewhat  acquainted  with  the  quality  of  stock  kept  by  a  very  large  number  of  breeders,  yet 
I  cannot  avoid  "mistakes"  of  this  kind.  I  don't  think  anyone  can.  The  best  I  can  do  is  to 
reduce  the  cost  of  mistakes  in  buying  to  the  minimum  by  never^  buying  more  fowls  than  I 
actually  need.  That  point  we  will  take  up  again. 

In  deciding  from  whom  to  buy,  give  the  preference  (for  reasons  previously  stated),  to  breed- 
ers nearest  you.  Write  to  as  many  of  these  as  you  wish,  stating  your  wants,  and  asking  for 
prices,  and  terms.  Most  breeders  state  their  terms  in  a  general  way  in  their  circulars,  but  not 
«ll  are  as  explicit  as  is  desirable.  If  you  are  going  to  buy  stock  on  approval,  (and  it  is  the  only 
way  to  buy  if  you  cannot  buy  on  inspection),  you  should  have  it  distinctly  understood  before 
you  send  your  order  on  what  conditions  the  shipment  is  made.  Some  breeders  make  the  state- 
ment that  stock  may  be  returned  at  their  expense  "if  not  as  represented"  in  their  circulars  or 
correspondence.  This  is  not  enough.  It  is  too  easy  to  misinterpret  both  the  buyer's  statement 
of  his  wants  and  the  breeder's  statement  of  what  be  will  send  to  fill  the  want.  Make  your 
order  conditional  on  the  stock  being  satisfactory  to  yon.  Have  the  seller's  written  agreement 
to  that  effect  before  you  send  him  the  money.  If  he  will  not  agree  to  that  don't  buy  of  him. 
A  man  who  will  not  make  such  an  agreement  may  be  perfectly  square.  Looking  at  the  matter 
from  his  point  of  view  he  may  think  it  not  good  policy  to  make  sales  that  way.  1  think,  how- 
ever, that  most  breeders  will  without  hesitation  agree  to  such  terms  for  shipments  within 
reasonable  distances. 

How    fluch    to    Buy. 

To  make  mistakes  or  misfortunes  in  buying  of  as  little  consequence  as  possible  buy  only 
lor  actual  needs.  I  mean  now  your  own  actual  needs.  I  think  one  of  the  greatest  mistakes  a 
beginner  can  make  is  to  buy  more  stock  at  the  start  than  he  needs  for  himself,  expecting  that 
by  selling  eggs  for  hatching  he  is  going  to  get  back  the  additional  money  put  into  the  stock, 
and  more.  The  novice  is  wisest  who  lets  the  egg  trade  alone  until  he  has  his  stock  well  estab- 


100  LL55ON5   IN   POULTRY   KEEPING  —  SECOND  5LRIE5. 

Jished.  One  cannot  be  certain  of  tbe  number  of  fowls  or  eggs  that  will  supply  him  as  many 
chicks  for  tbe  season  as  he  wants*,  but  he  can  take  the  number  that  should  do  HO  if  result* 
are  about  average.  Generally  speaking,  a  breeding  pen  —  that  is,  a  male  and  four  females  — 
is  enough  to  begin  with.  In  more  cases  a  trio  will  be  better.  Then  if  the  fowls  do  not  breed 
satisfactorily  the  outlay  has  not  been  heavy.  There  is,  of  course,  a  loss  of  time,  but  that  can- 
not be  avoided.  Indeed,  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  breeders  of  considerable  experience  to 
lose  practically  a  whole  season  through  the  failure  of  their  stock  to  breed  satisfactorily. 

Returning    Unsatisfactory   Stock. 

The  novice  generally  is  not  capable  of  judging  the  quality  and  value  of  the  stock  sent  him 
accurately,  nor  is  it  possible  to  give  him  instructions  that  will  enable  him  to  arrive  at  an 
exact  e>tim:tte;  but  there  are  some  points  that  may  be  given  that  will  help  him  to  know  some 
faults  for  which  he  should  reject  stock,  and  some  reasons  why  he  should  sometimes  hesitate 
to  reject  it  on  his  own  unfavorable  impression  of  it.  --*••'•, 

Unless  bought  in  the  fall,  birds  that  are  decidedly  immature  and  undeveloped  should  not  be 
accepted.  Breeders  sometimes,  in  their  eagerness  to  fill  orders,  send  chickens  whose  quality 
is  as  yet  uncertain,  telling  the  buyer  that  they  will  grow  into  fine  birds  by  the  breeding 
season.  If  the  buyer  was  advised  before  ordering  that  this  class  of  stock  would  be  sent  him, 
he  has  no  cause  to  complain,  but  such  birds  too  often  fail  to  develop  into  what  the  breeder 
said  tliey  would,  because  they  are  not,  when  received,  what  they  should  be  at  their  age. 

Sick,  injured,  or  dead  birds  the  buyer  should  refuse  to  accept  from  the  express  companies. 
This  leaves  the  settlement  of  responsibility  for  damage  where  it  belongs  —  between  the  shipper 
and  the  transportation  company. 

The  mere  fact  that  on  inspection  a  pen  of  fowls  fails  to  realize  the  anticipations  one  had 
been  indulging  of  what  he  was  to  get,  ought  not  to  lead  him  to  reject  them  as  unsatisfactory. 
If  the  birds  are  apparently  in  good  condition,  t;ike  them  out  of  the  coop,  put  them  in  a  pen 
by  themselves,  and  observe  them  for  a  little  while  —  at  intervals  for  a  few  hours,  or,  at  most, 
a  day.  Give  them  and  the  seller  a  chance.  A  reasonable  time  is  allowed  —  and  should  be 
taken  for  inspection.  Often  birds  just  from  a  journey  look  quite  different  after  a  short  rest. 
But  don't  keep  the  birds  more  than  a  day.  If  you  are  then  still  not  satisfied  with  them, 
return  them  promptly.  For  whatever  troubles  may  develop  while  the  stock  is  in  your  hands, 
you  are  properly  responsible.  A  buyer  cannot,  in  fairness,  keep  stock  for  one  or  two  or 
more  weeks,  and  then  ask  the  seller  to  make  losses  good. 

Do  not  let  a  small  fault,  as  you  see  it,  decide  you  to  return  birds  bought  at  ordinary  prices. 
There  are  few  specimens  produced  free  from  faults,  and  they  are  not  for  sale  except  at  very 
high  prices. 

If  one  fowl  in  a  lot  seems  to  you  decidedly  superior  to  the  rest,  don't  use  that  fowl  as  tbe 
standard  of  the  value  you  should  get  at  the  price,  and  be  dissatisfied  with  the  others.  It  may 
be  that  in  that  one  specimen  the  breeder  has  given  you  special  value.  It  is  not  at  all  an 
uncommon  thing  for  breeders  anxious  to  extend  their  reputation  to  give  customers  some 
rather  better  birds  than  the  prices  warrant. 

Don't  allow  any  ideas  you  may  have  of  distinctive  marks  indicating  the  absolute  purity  of 
stock  of  the  variety  you  are  buying,  to  lead  you  to  reject  or  find  fault  with  it.  Many  novices 
have  a  notion  that  pure  bred  fowls  have  certain  distinctive  features  which  invariably  appear 
in  well-bi'ed  stock.  This  is  not  the  case,  and  in  rejecting  a  fowl  for  lack  of  such  mark,  one 
msiy  reject  a  fowl  that  is  especially  valuable  for  other  or  general  excellence. 

Don't  be  too  much  influenced  in  your  opinion  of  the  stock  you  buy  by  the  comments  or 
judgment  of  others  who  see  them.  Consider  all  such  on  the  basis  of.  the  speaker's  actual 
knowledge  of  and  experience  with  the  kind  of  stock  in  question.  On  the  whole,  it  is  safe  to 
give  the  seller  and  the  stock  the  benefit  of  any  small  doubts  you  may  have  on  points  other 
thin  sickness,  damage,  or  immaturity.  Persons  selling  stock  cannot  afford  to  send  out  stock 
(hit  will  not  suit,  and  in  most  cases  where  this  is  done  the  party  doing  it  is  at  fault  because 
of  his  lack  of  experience  in  selling,  rather  than  because  of  any  deliberate  purpose  to  deceive 
or  defraud. 


TESTING    THE.    STOCK.  101 

Testing  the  Stock. 

It  is  always  safest  to  breed  one's  first  pure  bred  stock  as  mated  up  by  the  breeder  from 
whom  it  is  purchased.  The  beginner  should  remember,  however,  that  failure  to  get  results 
that  suit  him  may  be  due  to  his  inexperience  —  to  mismanagement  of  the  stock.  Even  if  his 
experience  with  inferior  stock  has  been  such  that  he  is  sure  of  his  ability  to  grow  good  chicks, 
failure  to  get  such  from  his  new  thoroughbred  stock  the  first  season  should  not  lead  him  to 
discard  it.  In  such  cases  I  would  advise  buying  a  few  more  birds  from  another  breeder,  and 
breeding  them  separately,  but  continuing  to  breed  the  first  stock  bought,  for  it  not  infrequently 
happens  that  stock  that  did  poorly  the  first  season  in  a  new  place,  does  uncommonly  well  the 
next,  and  it  is  therefore  pocr  policy  to  turn  it  off  without  a  further  trial. 


102  LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING —  SECOND  SERIES. 


LESSON      X. 


The    Host    Important    Part    of     the    Poultryman's 

Equipment. 


BEFORE  leaving  the  class  of  topics  we  have  been  discussing  in  the  last  few  lessons,  I 
want  to  consider  more  particularly  some  of  the  points  that  have  had  incidental  men- 
tion in  them.    We  have  discussed  a  number  of  matters  of  prime  importance  to  the 
beginner  in  poultry  culture:— the  possibilities  of  the  business,  the  different  branches  of 
it,  locations,  markets,  the  kinds  of  stock,  and  various  like  questions,  and  I  have  tried  to  indi- 
cate how  a  venture  in  poultry  keeping  may  be  as  free  as  possible  from  mistakes  that  use  up  the 
beginner's  capital  and  often  exhaust  his  enthusiasm. 

But  not  only  through  these  lessons,  but  constantly  in  correspondence  with  readers  of  the 
paper,  I  find  that  many  express  in  varying  degrees  the  feeling  of  the  correspondent  \vho>e 
letters  with  my  comments  on  them  appear  in  this  issue  of  the  paper.  They  think  it  would  be 
much  easier  for  them  to  get  along  if  I  would  explain  and  decide  for  them  in  everything,  down 
to  the  last  and  least  detail,  and  where  I  stop  they  imagine  that  there  are  other  reasons  for  stop- 
ping than  those  that  are  given,  and  that  my  freedom  of  speech  is  restrained  by  consideration 
for  other  interests. 

When  in  connection  with  this  series  of  lessons,  I  organized  a  special  class  in  poultry  keeping, 
with  the  purpose  of  keeping  more  closely  in  touch  with  a  number  of  poultry  keepers,  and 
following  their  work  in  its  details,  and  advising  them  more  definitely  than  is  possible  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  I  found  in  connection  with  this  class  an  obstacle  I  had  not  at  all  anticipated. 
By  far  the  greater  number  of  the  class  evidently  failed  to  understand  that  the  "Special  Section" 
was  in  effect  only  an  effort  to  give  individual  instruction,  as  far  as  it  could  be  given  under  such 
conditions,  to  a  limited  number  of  readers  of  the  paper.  The  questions  they  asked,  and  the 
comments  they  made  soon  made  it  clear  that  the  general  idea  was  that  the  special  section 
students  were  to  be  given  such  an  answer  as  they  wished  to  any  question  they  saw  fit  to  ask. 

At  the  time  I  was  quite  at  a  loss  how  to  account  for  this,  for  I  had  tried  in  the  announce- 
ments and  in  all  correspondence  relating  to  this  plan,  to  make  it  entirely  clear  that  I  was  not 
going  to  do  these  very  things.  I  have  since  thought  that  this  general  misapprehension  of  the 
purpose  of  that  plan  was  owing  to  the  general  feeling  among  novices  that  the  greatest  hindrance 
to  quick  and  sure  progress  in  poultry  culture  was  in  the  impossibility  of  i>etting  absolutely 
authoritative  and  reliable  directions  as  to  what  to  do  in  every  instance  where  the  poultryman  is 
called  upon  to  make  a  docision. 

In  a  sense  this  is  true: — but  what  to  the  novice  seems  to  be  the  trouble  is  not  the  real  trouble. 
His  view  of  the  situation  is  superficial.  His  difficulty  is  not  that  he  can  find  no  one  to  direct 
him,  but  that  he  does  not  know  himself.  He  is  undertaking  to  do  things  for  which  he  has  had 
no  preparation,  or  inadequate  preparation.  The  first  and  strongest  reason  for  urging  begin- 
ners in  poultry  culture  to  begin  small  and  go  very  slowly,  is  that  only  in  this  way  is  it  possible 


TIML  RLQUIRLD  TO  MAKE  POULTRYMLN.  103 

lor  those  who  learn  by  themselves  (that  is,  who  through  the  agency  of  books,  papers,  their 
own  experience,  and  an  occasional  interchange  of  opinions  with  another  poultry  keeper,  are 
self-taught)  to  be  in  any  sense  well  prepared  to  make  choice  and  decisions  when  necessary. 

Where  a  man  learns  poultry  keeping  as  he  would  a  trade,  occupation,  or  business  in  which 
a  thorough  training  covering  a  period  of  years  is  regarded  as  essential  to  proficiency,  he  has, 
during  all  that  period,  frequent — perhaps  daily  —  opportunities  to  see  ho\v  others  under 
various  conditions  make  such  choices  as  he  would  have  to  make  if  in  business  for  himself.  lie 
can  also  see  subsequently  how  events  mark  a  cour>e  as  wise  or  unwise,  and  through  it  all  he 
hears  from  those  interested  in  the  matter  discussion  of  all  phases  of  the  situation. 

Xow  there  are,  as  we  all  know,  some  men  whom  no  amount  of  training,  experience,  and 
instruction  will  fit  for  positions  of  independent  responsibility.  They  need  always  someone  to 
over.-ee  and  direct  their  work,  to  plan  for  them  and  decide  for  them.  And  there  are  some 
men  who,  wherever  you  put  them,  learn  very  quickly,  as  compared  with  the  average  of  their 
fellows.  But  I  have  never  yet  seen  a  man  who  in  any  position  acquitted  himself  well  who 
hud  not  the  particular  kind  of  knowledge  and  skill  needed  for  effective  work  in  that  position. 
He  may  not  have  acquired  this  knowledge  and  skill  for  the  purpose  of  using  it  in  this  particu- 
lar way,  but  it  was  knowledge  and  skill  that  could  be  applied,  and  when  you  hear  of  a  man 
accomplishing  wonderful  things  in  a  line  new  to  him,  you  may  be  very  sure  either  that  his 
previous  training  adapted  him  to  this  work,  or  that  the  reports  of  what  he  is  doing  are 
exaggerated.  In  poultry  culture  the  stories  of  phenomenal  successes  by  novices  are—I  think 
without  exception — greatly  exaggerated,  or  refer  to  accidental  successes  never  repeated.  As  I 
have  said  in  one  of  the  recent  lessons,  the  plants  that  I  know  are  successful  have  all  been 
developed  very  slowly  from  small  beginnings. 

The  attitude  of  the  beginner  who  thinks  be  would  get  along  all  right  if  only  someone  would 
tell  him  just  exactly  what  to  do  in  each  situation  as  it  arises,  after  having  outlined  for  him  the 
general  scheme  upon  which  his  poultry  keeping  is  to  be  conducted,  is  practically  that  as  he 
looks  at  it  the  poultry  business  is  one  that,  with  all  conditions  right  or  best,  runs  itself.  Most 
beginners  will  unhesitatingly  affirm  that  this  is  not  their  attitude  at  all,  but  in  practice  will 
still  continue  to  show  that  that  is  exactly  their  position. 

Mr.  J.  begins  poultry  keeping  with  White  Plymouth  Rocks,  because  in  some  way  he  has 
formed  the  opinion  that  they  are  the  best  fowls  for  his  purpose.  If  his  hens  do  not  lay,  and 
his  m'ighbor*'  Buff  Rocks  lay  well,  he  concludes  that  the  fault  is  in  the  stock.  It  never  occurs 
to  him  that  it  is  in  his  inexperience.  WThen  he  began  poultry  keeping  he  fed  by  the  method 
that  seemed  best  to  him.  Perhaps  it  was  recommended  by  someone  who  used  it  very  succes.-- 
fully.  Not  getting  results  by  it,  he  casts  about  for  another  method.  He  takes  that  of  t'he 
poultry  keeper  who,  so  far  as  he  can  learn,  is  most  successful  — just  at  that  time.  He  succeeds 
no  better  by  it,  and  tries  another,  with  no  better  success.  Perhaps  he  trios  a  dozen  different 
ways  of  feeding  before  he  begins  to  get  a  satisfactory  egg  yield.  Then  he  thinks  results  are 
due  to  the  particular  feeding  formula  u.sed.  The  fact  usually  is  that  out  of  his  varied  efforts 
in  feeding  he  has  developed  judgment  and  skill  in  feeding,  and  the  results  he  is  getting  are 
not  due  to  special  virlue  in  the  feed  in  use,  but  to  the  cumulative  knowledge  and  skill  that 
have  been  acquired  little  by  little. 

There  is  another  fact  closely  related  to  this  which  many  do  not  appreciate.  It  requires  a 
good  deal  of  familiarity  with  a  subject  to  enable  one  to  grasp  understanding!/  anything  beyond 
the  simplest  and  briefest  statement  of  matters  in  it.  Even  in  a  series  of  simple  and  easily 
understood  statements  many  will  make  no  lasting  impression  on  the  mind  of  one  not  familiar 
with  the  matters  treated.  Some  readers  who  thought  the  elementary  lessons  of  last  year  very 
complete  when  they  read  them  first,  write  me  that  in  reading  them  over  again  in  book  form 
they  find  much  more  in  them  —  much  that  escaped  their  attention  in  the  first  reading,  though 
they  read  carefully.  The  printed  matter  is  precisely  the  same.  There  is  neither  more  nor  Jess 
of  it.  The  difference  is  in  the  reader.  He  knows  more  of  the  subject — perhaps  more  from 
other  reading,  but  certainly  much  more  by  experience.  This  is  his  own  knowledge  —  what  he 
knows  at  first  hand. 

The  first  y.ear  that  I  was  in  the  poultry  business  I  bought  breeding  stock  of  several  varieties, 
partly  from  and  partly  through  an  acquaintance  in  the  business.  I  did  not  get  the  results  I 


104  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SECOND  SLRIES. 

thought  I  should  have  had,  and  blamed  it  on  the  stock,  and  discarded  it  all  and  bought  new 
st<>rk  elsewhere,  meantime  harboring  the  thought  that  my  acquaintance's  aid  had  been  more  of 
a  hindrance  than  a  help  to  me.  By  the  time  I  was  getting  good  results  in  breeding  1  hud 
di>covcred  that,  in  general,  the  trouble  that  first  year  was  not  in  the  stock  so  much  as  in  my 
inexperience.  Later  I  learned  that  the  stock  soon  became  what  its  owner  made  it;  that  the 
most  essential  things  in  applying  methods,  and  in  the  management  of  fowls,  were  good  judg- 
ment and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  fowls  with  which  one  worked,  and  the  various  articles 
used;  that  —  in  short  —  the  poultryman  was  the  determining  factor  in  every  poultry  venture. 

Nearly  every  beginner  supposes  that  he  appreciates  this.  He  counts  as  an  important  part  of 
bis  equipment  for  tiie  business  a  liking  for  fowls,  or  for  outdoor  life,  habits  of  industry  and 
p.  rseverance  and  intelligence.  The.se  are  all  necessary,  but  they  become  directly  available  and 
•  llective  only  as  they  are  displayed  in  connection  with  practical  personal  knowledge  of  the 
details  of  poultry  keeping.  The  acquisition  of  such  knowledge  requires  time,  because  variety 
in  experience  is  required  to  give  one  euch  a  general  working  knowledge  of  any  subject  that  he 
is  ready  to  act  promptly  and  quickly  in  any  situation  in  which  in  his  line  of  work  he  is  likely  to 
be  placed,  and  the  beginner  in  poultry  keeping  often  finds  himself  in  situations  that  are  full  of 
trouble  for  one  who  does  not  know  just  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it,  while  one  who  did  have 
that  knowledge  would  soon  have  matters  right  or  on  the  way  to  mend  with  the  least  possible 
loss. 

Again,  in  every  poultry  undertaking  there  is  a  very  large  element  of  chance.  Opportunities 
come  which  only  the  poultry  keeper  who  is  qualified  to  use  them  can  estimate  at  their  true 
value  and  take  and  use  to  advantage.  This  is,  of  course,  equally  true  in  all  lines  of  work,  but 
I  doubt  whether  there  is  any  other  line  in  which  so  few  of  those  engaged  in  it  have  had  a 
thorough  training.  The  newness  of  poultry  culture  as  a  business,  or  on  a  business  basis  is 
largely  responsible  for  this.  As  I  have  explained  in  earlier  lessons,  there  are  conditions  in 
regard  to  training  of  poultry  keepers  which  limit  opportunities  to  get  a  thorough  practical 
training.  But  because  this  is  so  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  poultryman  who  learns  by  keeping 
his  own  fowls  should  get  his  experience  regardless  of  expense. 

The  waste  and  loss  of  capital  and  of  inclination  to  continue  poultry  keeping  due  to  efforts  to 
learn  it  on  a  large  scale,  are  appalling  —  the  more  so  because  they  are  so  utterly  unnecessary. 
There  is  absolutely  no  need  of  anyone  losing  any  considerable  amount  of  money  in  poultry 
keeping  while  establishing  a  business,  if  he  follows  the  simple  rule  of  increasing  his  stock  no 
faster  than  he  is  sure  —  entirely  sure  of  his  abil  ty  to  handle  it  to  advantage.  If  when  making 
his  plans  a  poultry  keeper  will  base  them  on  what  he  has  done,  rather  than  on  what  someone 
else  has  done  or  what  he  hopes  to  do,  there  is  little  danger  of  his  planning  beyond  his  capacity 
to  perform.  To  be  safe  in  his  venture  he  must  observe  the  necessary  relation  between  his 
own  development  in  knowledge  of  poultry  and  the  growth  of  his  plant.  He  must  remember 
that  it  is  always  possible  to  adjust  operations  to  his  ability,  but  not  always  possible  to  adjust 
his  ability  to  the  scale  of  operations  on  which  he  endeavors  to  work. 

In  such  matters  as  the  purchase  of  stock,  of  appliances,  etc.,  the  only  way  a  poultry  keeper 
can  buy  goods  to  euit  is  by  buying  and  discarding  until  he  gets  what  suits  him,  not  being  too 
hasty  about  discarding  unsatisfactory  stock  or  goods,  but  giving  each  a  fair  trial.  What  suits 
one  does  not  suit  another,  and  each  has  to  suit  himself.  It  is  possible,  and  when  it  can  be  done 
it  is  advisable,  for  a  while,  for  a  beginner  to  rely  to  some  extent  on  the  advice  and  suggestions 
of  others,  though  I  believe  the  beginner  gets  along  best  and  advances  fastest  who,  while 
considering  advice  and  suggestions,  makes  the  decision  for  himself  when  the  responsibility  for 
it,  and  the  consequences,  are  his,  and  no  one  else's.  I  believe  it  is  better  for  the  beginner  who 
is  learning  by  himself  to  put  the  responsibility  for  what  he  does  with  himself,  and  not  with  his 
advisor,  for  —  after  all  —  wlien  he  takes  advice,  and  acts  upon  it,  he  usually  makes  a  choice 
between  the  advices  available,  and  so  the  responsibility  really  is  his  own. 

He  needs  to  consider  that  he  is  likely  to  make  mistakes,  to  fail  to  fully  understand  instructions 
given  him,  to  neglect  to  do  some  things  that  ought  to  be  done,  and,  in  a  variety  of  ways,  to  be 
per>onally  and  directly  responsible  for  things  that  go  wrong.  I  do  not  urge  this  with  the  idea 
of  making  novices  feel  that  others  are  always  blameless  if  advice  tney  give  does  not  result 


THE  POULTRYMAN  THE.  MOST  IMPORTANT  FACTOR.  105 

satisfactorily.  There  are  cases  where  in  formation  given  is  misleading,  and  the  novice  cannot 
know  It  until  by  repeated  experience  the  truth  is  made  clear  to  him.'  But  the  u>ual  attitude  of 
the  beginner  is  to  look  anywhere  and  everywhere  but  to  himself  for  the  causes  of  his  trouble.*, 
and  this  attitude  is  a  greater  handicap  on  his  progress  than  anything  else  could  be,  for  it  keeps 
him  always  searching  outside  of  himself  for  reasons  for  the  things  that  go  wrong,  when  the 
commonest  source  of  trouble  is  his  own  inefficiency. 

So  I  say  that  the  most  important  factor  in  poultry  culture  is  the  poultry  keeper.  It  is  only 
as  he  makes  himself  a  poultryman  that  one  is  able  to  get  value  out  of  good  methods, good  stock, 
a  good  location,  and  good  general  ability. 


106  LE550N5   IN    POULTRY  KEEPING  —  5LCOND 


LESSON     XT. 


The   External  Parasites  of   Poultry. 


IN  his  hook,  "  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  Dr.  Salmon  gives  a  list  of  more  than  forty  kinds  of  lice 
and  mites  which  infest  domestic  fowls,  —  parasites  which  make  poultry  thtir  special 
prey.     If  a  poultryman  takes  pleasure  in  that  kind  of  knowledge,  and  has  the  time  at  his 
disposal,  there  is  no  reason  why  he  should  not  study  these  creatures,  Itarn  their  names, 
study    them   microscopically,  learn  to  distinguish  between  them,  and  in  general  become  well 
Informed  on  the  subject.     But  practically  all  that  is  necessary  is  that  he  should  know  how  to 
keep  them  out  of  his  premises,  both  by  preventing  their  increase  and   reducing  their  numbers 
when  increased  to  the  point  where  they  become  troublesome. 

A  few  lice  on -a  healthy  fowl  do  no  perceptible  harm  —  so  long  as  they  are  few  in  numbers. 
It  is  even  asserted  by  some  authorities  that  a  few  lice  are  beneficial  rather  than  injurious,  con- 
suming dead  cuticle  and  causing  just  enough  irritation  to  prompt  the  fowl  to  dust  itself — its 
way  of  bathing  — regularly  ;  this,  however,  is  ail  theory,  and  has  not  been  demonstrated. 
The  evident  facts  are: — 

That  fowls  are  very  rarely  wholly  free  from  lice. 

That  in  limited  numbers  lice  do  little  damage. 

That  when  from  any  cause  they  become  numerous  they  are  a  very  serious  pest. 

Many  writers  on  poultry  topics  preach  constant  preventive  treatment  as  the  only  sure  way  of 
avoiding  losses  through  the  ravages  of  lice.  It  is  a  very  common  thing  to  see  statements  pro- 
claiming lice  as  a  constant  menace  to  the  health  and  profitableness  of  fowls,  and  urging  the 
necessity  of  unceasing  warfare  against  them. 

Impressed  by  such  statements  many  poultry  keepers  carry  on  a  systematic  treatment  for  lice 
which  takes  a  great  deal  of  time  and  labor,  adding  greatly  to  the  drudgery  of  their  routine 
work. 

Such  continuous  preventive  treatment  is  not  necessary  when  fowls  are  kept  under  ordinary- 
good  conditions,  with  no  conditions  existing  which  are  favorable  to  the  increase  of  lice. 

When  I  make  this  statement  I  do  not  wish  any  reader  to  misunderstand  it.  It  will  not  do  to 
assume  that  conditions  are  right,  and  therefore  —  in  accordance  with  my  statement —  precau- 
tions against  lice  and  treatment  for  lice  are  not  needed. 

Look  at  the  matter  from  the  other  side.  Find  out  —  if  you  do  not  already  know  —  to  what 
extent  lice  affect  your  poultry,  or  would  affect  them  under  your  management  with  special  pre- 
cautions against  lice  omitted,  and  then,  if  lice  are  troublesome  try  to  find  in  what  respect  con- 
ditions supposed  to  be  good,  are  favorable  to  the  increase  of  vermin,  and  therefore  bad. 

The  most  frequent  conditions  favorable  to  the  increase  of  lice,  are  debilitated  stock,  dark 
111  ventilated  houses,  and  buildings  that  by  reason  of  the  abundauce  of  conveniences  in  the 
fittings  are  difficult  to  keep  clean,  and  furnish  many  nooks  and  corners  to  which  the  sunlight 
rarely  penetrates. 


HOW    TO    DL5TROV    RLD    MITLS.  107 

When  lice  once  become  established  in  a  house  in  sufficient  numbers  to  cause  serious  trouble, 
the  most  common  reason  for  difficulty  in  exterminating  them  is  lack  of  thoroughness  in  treat" 
ment.  Often  the  treatment  while  of  the  right  kind  is  done  by  piecemeal,  and  when  repetitions- 
of  treatment  are  required  the  intervals  between  are  allowed  to  be  too  long.  I  find  that  this  is- 
nearly  always  the  case  when  complaint  is  made  that  usual  remedies  are  not  effective.  I  have 
often  had  letters  from  poultrymen  who  said  that  they  found  it  impossible  to  rid  the  fowls  and 
premises  of  lice,  though  the  treatment  —  as  they  described  it  —  left  nothing  to  be  desired. 

It  being  out  of  the  question  to  go  back  of  their  reports  and  ascertain  the  facts  in  any  case,  I 
several  years  ago  concluded  to  let  some  of  my  own  bouses  become  badly  infested  with  lice, 
reproducing  as  nearly  as  possible  the  conditions  of  the  typical  poultrvman  who  found  the  lice 
too  many  tor  him. 

So  one  season,  beginning  in  the  spring,  I  systematically  neglected  or  omitted  every  «su:il; 
operation  which  might  prevent  the  increase  of  Itce.  By  midsummer  I  had  one  hou>-e  badlv 
infested  with  red  mites.  It  is  worth  noting  in  connection  with  the  fact  that  under  ordinary 
good  conditions  lice  rarely  become  troublesome,  that  the  mites  did  not  appear  in  numbers  that 
made  their  presence  plain  without  close  investigation,  until  the  conditions  became  very  bad. 
The  droppings  had  been  allowed  to  lie  for  months.  Even  then  it  was  only  after  a  period  of 
nearly  two  weeks  of  very  hot  damp  weather  that  the  mites  began  to  be  noticeable.  Then- 
within  another  week  the  place  became  literally  alive  with  them. 

At  the  same  time  —  in  order  to  give  the  body  lice  a  chance  to  develop  —  I  omitted  to  m:ike 
provision  for  the  hens  to  dust  themselves.  So  I  had  at  once  a  flock  of  bens  badly  infested 
with  lice,  and  their  house  alive  with  red  mites.  The  ravages  of  the  insects  under  such  con- 
ditions began  to  be  discernible  almost  at  once.  For  the  lice  I  did  nothing  whatever  but  pro- 
vide dusting  places  as  usual  Wy  spading  up  here  and  there  in  the  yards  a  few  square  feet  of 
ground.  Had  the  hens  been  badly  infested  for  a  long  time  this  would  not  have  been  sufficient. 
As  it  was,  they  made  almost  constant  use  of  the  dust  baths  for  a  few  days,  and  soon  had  the 
lice  reduced  to  normal  numbers. 

The  red  mites  which  prey  on  the  fowls  at  night,  and  leave  them  during  the  day  to  hide  in 
rough  places  or  crevices  about  the  roosts,  are  said  to  remain  on  the  fowls  during  the  day  as 
well  as  night  when  very  numerous,  but  I  could  find  none  on  the  hens  in  these  houses  by 
day,  though  they  were  in  such  numbers  at  the  ends  of  the  roosts  that  they  could  not  begin 
to  find  places  for  concealment  by  day,  and  remained  in  a  mass  so  great  that  »  slight  movement 
of  the  roost  would  make  a  great  bloody  smear  of  them. 

The  first  thing  done  for  these  was  to  remove  all  roosts  and  nests  from  the  house,  taking 
out  also  the  cleats  of  wood  on  which  the  ends  of  the  roosts  rested,  which  were  screwed  to  the 
wall.  Then  I  brushed  down  the  walls  thoroughly  with  a  broom  preliminary  to  whitewashing. 
In  doing  this,  quantities  of  mites  were  brushed  to  the  floor,  and  undoubtedly  many  of  them 
worked  back  again,  but  I  paid  no  attention  at  all  to  them. 

I  began  treatment  by  applying  to  the  mites  on  roosts  and  nests,  taken  out  into  the  sun, 
various  preparations,  and  carefully  noting  their  action.  I  found  kerosense  effective,  but  did 
not  think  after  trying  chloro-naptholeum  in  water,  applied  to  the  mites  and  roosts  with  a 
brush,  that  kerosene  was  as  economical.  I  did  not  feel  like  using  it  as  freely  as  I  did  the 
water  and  C.  N.  Whitewash  also  was  effective  for  all  mites  it  reached,  though  not  as  quickly 
as  the  chloro-naptholeum  preparation.  I  used  some  of  this  in  quite  a  weak  solution,  pour- 
ing into  a  pail  just  enough  to  color  the  water  up  well,  and  with  a  brush  threw  and  spattered 
it  over  the  walls  for  some  distance  from  the  ends  of  the  roosts,  taking  care  to  get  it  into 
joints  and  cracks  as  much  as  possible. 

In  one  pen  I  used  nothing  but  whitewash,  putting  it  on  the  underside,  edges,  and  ends  of 
the  roosts,  as  well  as  on  the  walls  of  the  pen.  In  the  other  two  pens  I  gave  roosts,  supports, 
and  nests  a  free  application  of  water  and  chloro-naptholeum,  and  then  whitewashed  the  walls. 
Note  that:  —  Every  part  of  walls,  roosts,  and  attachments  was  thoroughly  treated  at  one  time 
with  some  preparation  destructive  to  mites. 

The  fowls  roosted  in  the  houses  the  same  as  usual  that  night;  the  whitewash  not  being  yet 
quite  dry,  no  special  indications  of  mites  were  looked  for  until  after  the  second  night.  Then 
enough  mites  that  had  escaped  treatment  had  worked  their  way  back  to  be  quite  conspicuous. 


108  LESSONS   IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  — SECOND  SERIES. 

But  here  is  a  point  for  the  poultryman  who  is  combating  mites  to  observe.  The  mites 
which  escaped  the  first  treatment  were  those  which  were  most  concealed,  and,  perhaps, 
some  brushed  to  the  floor  in  the  preliminary  sweeping  which  had  worked  their  way  back. 
My  observation  of  mites  on  some  pieces  of  board  well  covered  with  them  to  which  I  applied 
road  dust  freely  was  that  many  of  them  were  killed  by  it.  But  these  mites,  having  worked 
their  way  back  to  the  fowls,  and  got  a  full  feed,  would  not  retreat  to  the  inaccessible  places  in 
which  they  had  escaped  the  treatment,  but  stopped  in  the  first  place  that  afforded  a  refuge,  and 
after  that  one  thorough  application  to  all  parts  of  the  house  I  directed  my  attention  exclu- 
sively to  mites  found  on  the  roosts  in  the  morning,  working  on  the  theory  that  it  was  easier 
to  take  time  and  gradually  exterminate  the  mites  as  they  remained  on  the  roosts  where  they 
were  easy  to  get  at  than  to  try  to  follow  them  to  their  furthest  possible  hiding  places. 

In  the  pen  that  hud  been  treated  wholly  with  whitewash,  I  would  turn  over  the  roost  in 
the  morning  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  days,  and  whitewash  it,  thus  killing  all  mites  that 
happened  to  be  on  it.  In  the  other  pens  I  would  do  the  same  thing  with  the  other  prepara- 
tion mentioned.  At  each  treatment  the  number  of  mites  found  became  Jess  until  within 
two  weeks  practically  none  could  lie  found,  and  they  made  no  more  trouble  until  the  next 
season.  Then  with  the  houses  neglected  for  a  little  while  they  began  to  multiply,  but  were 
quickly  checked  by  a  repetition  of  the  treatment.  I  have  since  used  C.  N.  in  water  whenever 
traces  of  mites  became  numerous,  but  have  never  lound  it  necessary  to  treat  more  than  once 
a  season.  I  suppose  the  better  policy  would  be  to  make  a  thorough  application,  or  possibly 
two  or  three  in  succession  at  the  beginning  of  warm  weather,  and  thus  prevent  their  increas- 
ing to  the  troublesome  points,  but  since  my  first  experiment  I  have  rather  liked  to  have  at 
least  one  opportunity  during  the  season  to  demonstrate  that  the  red  mites  were  not  so  trouble- 
some a  proposition  if  one  made  a  thorough  job  of  the  treatment. 

The  plain  indication  of  the  presence  of  these  mites  is  found  in  their  excrement,  little  grayish 
patches,  like  fly  specks,  on  the  roosts  and  adjacent  parts  which  they  traverse.  When  you  see 
these  speeks  you  may  know  with  certainty  that  the  mites  are  there.  If  treatment  is  begun 
at  once  the  mites  may  be  practically  exterminated  with  a  few  applications  to  the  roosts  and 
adjacent  parts  where  their  tracks  are  seen.  Promptness  is  important  as  much  on  account  of 
the  loss  of  vitality  to  the  fowls,  and  profit  to  the  owner,  as  because  of  the  greater  difficulty 
of  getting  rid  of  the  mites  when  their  numbers  have  greatly  increased. 

With  prompt  and  thorough  treatment  whenever  signs  of  mites  are  observed,  there  is  no 
need  of  regular  weekly,  or  even  monthly,  applications  to  prevent  their  increase. 

For  lice  on  the  bodies  of  fowls,  as  I  have  said,  no  treatment  is  necessary  if  the  fowls  are 
vigorous  and  have  an  opportunity  to  dust  as  they  wish.  Lack  of  inclination  to  dust  is  a  symp- 
tom of  lack  of  vitality.  If  a  fowl  showing  such  a  symptom  is  found  to  be  lousy,  treatment  for 
lice  may  be  given  a  time  or  two,  but  unless  the  fowl  then  with  such  other  treatment  as  is  neces- 
sary on  other  accounts,  begins  to  shows  vitality  enough  to  keep  itself  free  from  lice  it  is  not 
likely  to  be  worth  doctoring. 

It  is  when  hens  are  incubating  that  they  require  treatment  for  lice  by  the  attendant.  They 
may  not  suffer  if  neglected.  Indeed  I  have  had  many  hens  go  through  an  entire  period  of 
incubation,  bring  off  a  good  brood  and  rear  every  one  with  no  treatment  for  lice  at  any  time, 
but  the  conditions  during  incubation  are  so  much  more  favorable  to  the  increase  of  lice,  and 
the  annoyance  of  lice  is  so  likely  to  cause  hens  to  break  eggs  or  leave  their  nests,  that  it  is  better 
to  take  regular  precautions  against  lice. 

Similarly  with  the  chicks  when  hatched.  I  have  this  season  a  number  of  very  thrifty  broods 
from  nests  which  I  allowed  to  become  badly  infested  with  lice.  These  chicks  have  had  abso- 
lutely no  treatment  for  lice  except  the  opportunity  given  them  and  the  hen  to  dust  as  soon  as 
the  chicks  were  ready  to  come  from  the  nests.  Some  of  these  broods,  after  being  kept  for  a 
week  or  ten  d-ays  where  they  could  dust  at  will,  were  put  in  coops  on  the  grass  with  no  dust 
bath,  but  have  shown  no  signs  at  all  of  lice.  I  do  not  advise  this  as  a  practice,  but  the  experi- 
ence is  useful  in  showing  how  great  a  part  the  opportunity  to  take  proper  care  of  themselves 
plays  in  keeping  stock  free  from  lice;  and  I  think  it  will  nearly  always  be  found  that  by  making 
conditions  unfavorable  to  lice  and  mites,  and  giving  the  fowls  and  chicks  suitable  opportunities 
to  take  care  of  themselves,  systematic  and  regular  precautions  against  these  parasites  may  be 


THE.  EXTERNAL  PARASITES  OF  POULTRY.  109 

reduced  to  two  or  three  a  year  for  the  adult  stock,  and  as  many  for  each  brood  of  young  stock. 

In  this  lesson  I  have  mentioned  only  a  very  few  insecticides,  none  but  articles  commonly  used 
for  other  purposes,  kept  on  hand  in  many  homes,  and  easily  obtainable  everywhere.  Chloro- 
naptholeum  is  a  special  preparation,  but  as  far  as  its  use  in  the  manner  described  is  concerned, 
seems  to  me  to  be  just  the  same  as  sulpho-napthol,  which  I  have  since  used  sometimes  in  the 
same  way  with  the  same  results,  and  I  suppose  that  there  are  other  preparations  oi  the  same 
character  which  may  be  substituted.  The  point  I  want  to  impress  is  that  a  common  article  of 
household  use,  with  waier,  everywhere  abundant  is  an  effective  remedy  for  mites,  and  an  inex- 
pensive one.  Hence  there  is  no  occasion  for  delay  in  treatment  while  waiting  for  some  special 
insecticide  ordered  only  when  actually  needed. 

It  would  be  possible  to  greatly  extend  this  lesson,  giving  a  long  list  of  insecticides,  both 
proprietary  and  home  made,  but  of  these  I  shall  say  nothing  here  except  that  if  convenient  any 
standard  insecticide  may  be  used,  provided  it  is  applicable  for  the  special  purpose  for  which  an 
insecticide  is  wanted.  For  adult  fowls  use  a  powder,  if  it  seems  necessary  to  give  them  indi- 
vidual attention.  For  chicks  use  a  powder,  treating  each  brood  as  a  whole.  For  lice  and 
mites  in  coops  and  on  fixtures,  use  a  liquid,  applying  with  spray,  brush,  or  broom  as  most  con- 
venient. In  every  case  be  thorough  and  persistent.  Let  the  intervals  between  treatments  be 
short,  a  week  or  ten  days  for  lice  to  which  powder  is  applied,  and  two  to  four  days  for  liquid 
appliances. 

Don't  keep  up  a  constant  warfare  on  possible  parasites,  riot  knowing  whether  they  are  there 
or  not,  but  keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  parasites  and  signs  of  parasites,  and  when  necessary  go> 
after  them  aggressively. 


110  LL550N5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  — SECOND  5LRIL5. 


LESSON      XII. 


Internal  Parasites  of  Poultry. 


PARASITIC  worms  —  particularly  intestinal  worms  —  infest  many  fowls  whose  owners 
do  not  at  all  suspect  their  presence.  By  "infest"  here  I  mean  that  the  worms  are 
present  in  sufficient  numbers  to  be  troublesome.  Some  good  authorities  say  that  intes- 
tinal worms,  like  lice  ou  the  skin  and  feathers  of  the  fowl,  are  almost  invariably  pres- 
ent, but  as  long  as  they  are  not  too  numerous  they  make  no  trouble,  and  may  even  have  some 
function  of  benefit  to  the  fowl.  Just  what  this  is,  or  how  it  operates,  I  have  never  seen  stated, 
nor  so  far  as  I  have  read  ou  the  subject  have  I  seen  any  suggestion  of  usefulness  for  the  gape 
worm  which  infests  the  aesophagus  of  the  fowl. 

The  literature  of  this  subject  is  not  large.  Salmon  in  the  "  Diseases  of  Poultry,"  devotes 
.about  thirty  pages  to  worms,  giving  them,  I  think,  more  space  than  all  other  American  poultry 
books  combined.  His  material  is  drawn  largely  from  European  writers  and  investigators. 
Xiittle  original  work  in  investigation  of  diseases  of  this  class  has  been  done  in  this  country.  Dr. 
Paige,  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  has  investigated  several  mysterio'us 
troubles  in  poultry  yards  in  the  state,  and  found  worms  causing  the  trouble,  and  has  had  a 
good  many  diseased  birds  at  the  station  for  observation  and  experiment.  When  I  was  last  at 
the  station  he  was  testing  remedies  on  a  number  of  diseased  specimens,  and,  as  I  understood, 
finding  results  too  variable  to  warrant  any  general  conclusions. 

Salmon's  treatment  of  worms,  while  the  best  accessible  to  poultrymen,  is  often  far  from  sat- 
isfactory. He  seems  to  write  almost  wholly  after  the  European  investigators  of  the  subject, 
.and  is  often  too  technical  in  descriptive  statements. 

Worms,  when  present  In  troublesome  numbers,  interfere  seriously  with  the  health  of  the 
fowl.  Considering  the  conditions  produced  by  them  as  diseases  it  is  found  that  the  symptoms 
are  not  marked  until  a  rather  acute  stage,  and  even  then  are  not  so  unique  as  to  immediately 
identify  them.  The  presence  of  the  gape  worm  in  the  throat  is  most  easily  determined,  yet 
•" gapes"  is  commonly  confounded  with  other  troubles  like  gastritis,  in  which  gas  escaping 
through  the  mouth  causes  belching;  acute  lung  troubles  accompanied  by  labored  breathing;  or, 
Indeed,  any  difficulty  or  distress  in  breathing.  As  —  especially  in  small  chicks — general  weak- 
ness from  any  cause  is  apt  to  be  accompanied  by  difficult  breathing,  it  Is  readily  seen  that  the 
possibilities  of  mistaking  other  things  for  gapes  are  quite  unlimited.  And,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
a  great  many  reported  cases  of  gapes  are  not  gapes  at  all,  and  the  general  impression  that 
"gapes"  is  a  malady  that  annually  ravages  the  crop  of  young  chicks  all  over  the  country  is  a 
great  big  general  mistake  due  to  the  fact  stated  above  that  a  symptom  which  might  be  described 
as  gaping  accompanies  other  more  common  diseases. 

With  regard  to  intestinal  worms  we  have  just  the  opposite  popular  attitude.  They  are  rarely 
•suspected  as  the  cause  of  trouble,  and  rarely  discovered  until  diseased  specimens  or  infested 
premises  are  examined  by  men  with  medical  training.  All  In  all,  the  detection  and  effective 
•treatment  of  these  parasites  that  live  within  the  body  of  the  fowl  Is  one  of  the  most  puzzling 
propositions  the  poultrymen  to  whom  it  comes  have  to  deal  with. 

What  I  can  say  on  the  subject  is  suid  from  the  rather  peculia-r  standpoint  editors  sometimes 


THL    TROUBLL5OML    GAPE    WORM.  111 

attain.  I  hare  never  seen  a  case  of  gapes,  nor  have  I  had  any  trouble  with  intestinal  worms  In 
niy  own  fowls.  1  have  frequently  been  able  by  reference  to  authorities  on  poultry  diseases  to 
indicate  intestinal  worms  as  a  probable  cause  of  troubles  about  which  readers  of  the  paper 
asked  me,  and  in  many  such  cases  treatment  for  worms  has  seemed  effective,  furnishing  rea- 
sonable grounds  for  concluding  that  worms  caused  the  trouble,  though  I  must  say  that  in  more 
than  one  case  in  which  satisfactory  result  of  treatment  for  worms  was  reported  to  me  the 
correspondent  had  not  been  able  to  discover  worms,  and  could  only  say  that  after  applying  tbe 
remedies  conditions  improved.  So  I  am  in  the  position,  not  of  an  authority  on  this  or  other 
diseases,  but  of  a  plain  poultryman  with  perhaps  a  little  more  than  average  familiarity  with 
both  unprofessional  statements  of  cases  and  the  professional  descriptions  of  diseases  and  pre- 
scriptions for  the  same. 

The    Gape    Worm. 

The  disease  known  as  the  "  gapes''  takes  its  name  from  a  small  red  round  worm  wnich 
attaches  itself  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  windpipe.  The  conspicuous  symptom  of  the 
disease  is  the  gaping  which  gives  it  its  name.  As  has  been  said,  gaping,  while  the  character- 
istic symptom  of  this  disease,  is  not  peculiar  to  it,  but  is  a  symptom  in  several  other  troubles. 
So  to  make  sure  of  the  nature  of  the  trouble,  and  of  the  proper  treatment  to  apply,  the 
windpipe  should  be  examined  for  worms.  If  they  cannot  be  detected  by  opening  the  mouth 
c,f  the  bird  wide  and  looking  into  the  passage,  take  a  stiff  feather,  not  too  large,  and  having 
Gripped  the  quill  to  leave  only  a  little  brush  at  the  end  of  it,  put  it  gently  down  the  wind- 
pipe, turn  once  or  twice,  and  then  withdraw.  If  there  are  gape  worms  present  some  should 
be  found  adhering  to  the  feather.  If  the  worms  are  found,  the  only  way  to  treat  them 
Affectively  seems  to  be  to  operate  on  each  chick  separately  with  a  feather,  as  just  described, 
or  with  a  looped  horse  hair,  or  a  gape  worm  extractor  made  of  fine  wire.  Anyone  can 
make  such  an  extractor  for  himself,  using  No.  30  wire.  Take  a  piece  about  12  or  14  inches 
long,  double  it,  and  then  twist  the  two  ends  so  that  a  loop  just  wide  enough  to  go  down  the 
windpipe,  and  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long  is  left  at  one  end,  while  the  wires  twisted 
together  for  the  rest  of  their  length,  make  the  long  handle  for  the  instrument.  When  this 
is  inserted  in  the  windpipe,  and  turned  around,  the  worms  are  cut  loose,  and  what  are  not 
withdrawn  with  the  wire  will  be  coughed  up  by  tbe  chick.  Several  other  remedies  have  been 
given.  One  that  used  to  be  very  generally  recommended  was  to  put  the  chicks  in  a  box,  and 
cause  them  to  inhale  lime  dust.  This  treatment  seems  to  have  survived  on  paper  rather  than 
in  >;ttisfactory  practice,  for  though  it  seemed  to  have  the  indorsement  of  many  writers  I 
never  could  learn  that  it  was  effective. 

When  the  disease  is  discovered  on  premises,  give  tbe  affected  birds  the  individual  surgical 
treatment  just  described;  then  take  precautions  to  prevent  it  in  future.  According  to  the 
l.e>t  authorities,  and  also  to  the  most  observant  poultrymen  who  have  bad  to  contend  with  it, 
the  gape  worm,  (syngamus  trachealis),  is  communicated  to  fowls  through  earth  worms  which 
they  eat  from  ground  on  which  chickens  with  the  gapes  have  run.  The  eggs  and  embryos  of 
the  gape  worm  are  scattered  over  the  ground,  some  in  the  excrement  and  some  coughed  up 
by  the  sick  birds.  They  may  be  taken  by  other  chicks  or  fowls  direct  from  the  ground,  but 
the  common  method  of  receiving  them  is  believed  to  be  through  earth  worms.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  shown  conclusively  that  they  are  taken  into  the  digestive  tract  of  earth  worms,  and 
may  l>e  carried  for  some  time  there,  and  communicated  to  the  chick  by  the  worms  it  eats. 

Sometimes  the  infested  tract  is  small,  and  trouble  may  be  avoided  by  fencing  the  chicks 
out  of  it.  A  lady  in  Pennsylvania  wrote  me  some  years  ago  that  she  found  she  bad  no 
trouble  with  her  chicks  if  she  kept  them  away  from  a  particular  spot  in  the  garden. 

A  poultryman,  some  time  ago,  stated  in  one  of  our  leading  poultry  journals  that  he  raised 
chicks  on  infested  ground  by  keeping  them  confined  while  small  to  pens  or  sheds,  the  ground 
under  which  had  been  treated  with  lime.  In  these  enclosures  the  chicks  could  get  no  worms, 
and  were  free  from  gapes,  while  those  outside  soon  became  diseased.  He  says  that  he  has 
found  that  if  chicks  are  kept  oft'  an  infested  piece  of  ground  for  three  years  few  gape  worms 
will  be  left  in  it. 

Where  the  gape  worm  is  prevalent  it  is  a  most  serious  pest.    It  abounds  most  on  wet  heavy 


112  LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

soils,  that  is,  on  soils  least  suited  to  poultry.  On  the  sanely  hills  and  knolls  of  New  England, 
we  have  no  trouble  with  It.  It  might  get  a  foothold  on  some  of  our  low,  ratber  swampy 
spots,  hut  very  little  poultry  is  kept  in  such  places,  the  "  sandy,  well  drained  "  locations  having 
been  favored  more  perhaps  than  their  merits  deserve. 

When  I  was  a  boy  in  Illinois  we  used  to  hear  much  of  the  gapes,  and  from  the  character 
of  much  of  the  soil  there,  it  is  probable  that  many  of  the  cases  were  genuine,  but  I  never 
happened  to  come  in  contact  with  them.  In  Colorado,  with  its  dry  sandy  soil,  we  had  no 
krape  worms.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  if  a  careful  investigation  of  poultry  and  yards  were 
made  all  over  the  country,  and  a  map  prepared  to  show  the  areas  free  from  the  gape  worm, 
those  in  which  it  was  found,  but  not  generally  as  a  serious  pest,  and  those  where  it  was  very 
troublesome,  poultrymen  would  be  surprised  at  the  small  area  actually  badly  infested.  I 
mention  this  particularly  because  people  so  often,  supposing  they  have  a  case  of  gapes,  fail  to- 
prove  it  or  find  out  what  really  is  the  trouble,  and  so  allow  some  other  serious  trouble  to 
develop  to  a  stage  where  it  is  hard  to  deal  with,  when,  if  they  bad  been  more  thorough  in 
the  first  diagnosis  they  might  have  learned  juet  what  was  wrong  in  time  to  treat  the  disease 
easily  and  successfully. 

Intestinal    Worms. 

S»lmon  gives  a  list  of  forty-five  parasitic  worms  found  in  the  intestines  of  fowls  and  in 
the  neighboring  parts.  Some  of  these  are  found  only  in  one  kind  of  fowls;  others  infest  all 
kinds  of  domestic  land  and  water  fowls.  These  worms  he  groups  as  tape  worms,  round 
worms,  flukes,  and  thorn  headed  worms,  the  most  numerous  in  varieties  and  the  most  common 
in  occurrence  being  the  tape  worms  and  round  worms. 

The  general  symptoms  of  worms  in  the  intestines  are  the  same.  The  kind  of  worm  present 
can  only  be  determined  by  finding  worms  in  the  droppings,  or  by  post  mortem,  showing 
them  fixed  in  the  parts  of  the  fowl.  If  the  droppings  as  voided  by  the  fowl  before  treat- 
ment show  no  traces  of  worms,  a  vermifuge  may  be  given,  and  the  fowl  kept  where  its 
droppings  are  easily  examined.  It  is  not  certain  that  no  worms  are  present  because  none 
are  evacuated.  Some  worms  are  very  difficult  to  dislodge.  But  a  dose  of  the  remedy  to 
endeavor  to  secure  from  the  droppings  confirmation  of  the  suspicion  of  the  presence  of  worm* 
in  the  intestines  of  the  fowl  is  the  only  way  practicable  for  the  poultry  keeper,  short  of  kill- 
ing one  or  more  fowls,  and  making  a  careful  examination  of  the  intestines. 

The  inexpert  examination  is,  of  course,  especially  liable  to  error,  though  often  it  does  show 
the  presence  of  worms.  Wherever  a  state  has  its  experiment  station  equipped  for  the  exam- 
ination of  such  animals  and  fowls,  poultrymen  in  that  state  should  communicate  with  the 
director  or  the  veterinary  at  the  station  whenever  a  serious  trouble  arises  which  they  do  not 
understand.  Write  the  experiment  station  authorities  stating  the  case.  If  they  find  on  corre- 
spondence that  there  seems  to  be  a  case  requiring  investigation  they  give  directions  how  to  pro- 
ceed. In  practically  all  of  the  eastern  states  the  experiment  stations  are  prepared  to  do  work 
of  this  kind. 

"The  symptoms  which  Indicate  worms  in  the  intestines,"  says  Salmon,  •"  are  not  very 
characteristic,  but  are  such  as  would  be  expected  from  ill  health  due  to  any  chronic  disease. 
The  birds  become  dull,  weak,  emaciated,  isolate  themselves,  are  indisposed  to  search  for  their 
food,  are  stiff  in  their  walk,  their  plumage  loses  its  brilliancy  and  becomes  rough,  they  have 
diarrhea,  and  sometimes  epileptiform  attacks.  In  certain  cases  the  symptoms  develop  rapidly, 
and  the  birds  die  as  though  from  an  acute  disease.  The  most  certain  evidence  of  the  nuture 
of  the  trouble  is  the  discovery  in  the  intestines  of  large  numbers  of  one  or  more  species  of 
worms  *  *  *  upon  examination  of  birds  from  the  flock  which  have  died  or  have  been 
killed." 

For  treatment  Salmon  recommends  first  hygienic  preventive  measures.  Says  he:  "  One  of 
the  most  important  of  these  measures  is  to  move  the  fowls  upon  fresh  ground  every  two  or 
three  years,  or  certainly  in  all  cases  where  such  parasites  are  frequently  observed  in  the 
intestines  of  the  birds.  Another  practical  measure  which  maybe  adopted  at  the  eame  time 
is  to  remove  the  excrement  daily  from  the  houses  and  destroy  any  parasites  or  their  ejrg» 
wiiicii  may  be  in  it,  by  mixing  with  quick  lime,  or  saturating  it  with  a  ten  percent  solution. 


RLMLDILS    FOR    WORMS.  113 

of  sulphuric  ada.  The  acid  is  cheap,  hut  requires  that  threat  care  l>e  used  In  diluting  it,  owing- 
to  danger  of  it  splashing  upon  the  clothing  and  fle.>h,  and  causing  severe  burns.  It  should, 
always  be  poured  slowly  into  the  water  for  dilution,  but  on  no  account  should  water  be 
poured  into  the  acid,  as  it  will  cause  explosions  and  splashing.  When  treating  diseased  birds 
these  should  always  be  isolated  and  confined,  and  their  droppings  should  either  be  burned 
or  treated  with  lime  or  sulphuric  acid  as  just  recommended.  Without  these  hygienic 
measures,  medical  treatment  can  only  be  partially  successful." 

For  medical  treatment  the  same  authority  says : — "  One  of  the  best  methods  of  treating  tape 
worms  in  fowls  is  to  mix  in  the  feed  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  pomegranate  root  bark  for 
every  fifty  head  of  birds.  In  treating  a  few  birds  at  a  time  it  is  well  to  follow  this  medicine 
with  a  purgative  dose  of  castor  oil  (two  to  three  teaspoonfuls)."  *  *  * 

"  For  the  treatment  of  the  heterakis  (round  worm)  Meguin  recommends  mixing  santonine 
with  the  food  given  to  the  fowls.  The  powdered  santonine  may  be  incorporated  in  a  cake,  the 
dose  being  7  or  8  grains  for  each  bird.  An  efficient  remedy  is  made  by  boiling  an  ounce  each, 
of  male  fern,  tansy,  and  savory  m  a  pint  of  water.  The  resulting  liquid  is  mixed  with  flour,, 
which  is  then  made  into  pills  and  H<lmini.>tered  to  the  affected  birds.  *  *  *  Oil  of  turpen- 
tine is  an  excellent  remedy  for  all  worms  which  inhabit  the  digestive  canal.  It  may  be  given, 
In  the  dose  of  one  to  three  teaspoonfuls,  and  is  best  administered  by  forcing  it  through  a  small,, 
flexible  catheter  that  has  been  oiled  and  passed  through  the  mouth  and  aesophagus  to  the  crop» 
The  medicine  is  less  severe  in  its  effects  if  diluted  with  an  equal  bulk  of  olive  oil,  butlf  it  fails. 
to  destroy  the  parasites  when  so  diluted  it  may  be  given  pure." 

The  remedies  given  by  Sanborn  :c  "Farm-Poultry  Doctor,"  are  slightly  difierent.  He  advises 
for  round  worm  a  two  grain  pill  of  santonine  followed  by  a  half-teaspoonfulof  castor  oil.  This- 
to  be  given  about  an  hour  before  feeding  every  other  morning  for  a  week.  For  tape  worm  he 
prescribes  five  dropsof  oil  of  male  fern  in  one  teaspoonful  of  sweet  oil.  This  to  be  given  before 
feeding  in  the  morning,  and  the  morning  feed  given  about  two  hours  after  to  be  a  warm  mash 
of  bran  and  milk  containing  for  each  bird  one  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil. 

The    Last    Resort. 

When  worms  of  any  kind  become  so  troublesome  as  to  cause  heavy  losses  It  Is  probably  the 
best  policy  to  discontinue  keeping  poultry  on  the  premis-es  for  a  time  proportionate  lo  the 
violence  of  the  epidemic  and  the  general  condition  of  the  buildings  and  soil.  On  an  old  plant 
it  might  be  advisable  to  keep  no  poultry  for  two  or  three  years.  On  a  new  plant  a  thorough 
cleaning  up  and  disinfecting  preliminary  to  the  introduction  of  new  stock  presumed  to  be  free 
from  the  trouble  should  be  sufficient. 

To  what  extent  losses  of  poultry  are  due  to  worms,  it  is  not  possible  to  say.  Doubtless  many- 
epidemics  Qf  so-called  cholera  and  dysentery  are  caused  by  worms,  and  the  unfortunate  poultry 
keeper  never  suspects  the  real  cause  of  the  trouble.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  anyone  engaged 
in  poultry  keeping  who  has  heavy  losses  he  cannot  account  for  ought  to  try  to  have  an  expert 
examination  of  diseased  fowls  made.  This  will  in  most  cases  show  where  the  trouble  lies. 


114  LLS5ON5   IN    POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SLCOND  5LRILS. 


LESSON     XIII. 


External   Characters  of   Poultry,    and    Their    Values. 


Introductory. 

THE  title  of  this  lesson  is  borrowed  from  the  chapter  of  the  same  title  in  Mr.  Edward 
Brown's  book,  "  Races  of  Domestic  Poultry/'  to  which  I  am  indebted  for  the  idea  of 
attempting  a  complete  discussion  of  the  subject.    The  practical  value  of  the  matter 
seems  to  make  it  worth  while  to  preserve  such  a  treatment  of  it  in  form  that  will 
make  it  available  for  future  distribution.    Hence,  T  include  it  in  the  series  of    lessons,  and 
adopt  for  it  the  method  of  treatment  appropriate.    Mr.  Brown,  in  his  treatment  of  the  subject, 
seemed  to  me  to  limit  the  discussion  to  superlicial  characters,  that  is  to  those  points  of  which 
fanciers  make  much,  but  which  poultry  keepers  who  are  not  fanciers  generally  regard  with 
indifference  if  not  with  disdain,  and  to  treat  these  characters  solely  with  reference  to  their 
relation  to  the  production  of  food  values  in  eggs  or  meat.    That  may  be  the  best  present  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  for  the  British  public  for  which  primarily  he  writes,  but  in  this  country 
we  have  a  very  large  class  of  poultry  keepers  whose  aim  it  is  to  combine  fancy  and   utility 
qualities,  and  in  ever  increasing  degree  we  find  poultrymen  producing  "  fancy  "  and  "prac- 
tical" fowls  from  the  same  stock,  the  difference  between  them  being  a  matter  of  individual 
selection,  rather  than  of  breeding. 

Under  suc-h  circumstances  the  proper  disposition  of  a  fowl  becomes  simply  a  matter  of 
correctly  classifying  it,  and  using  or  disposing  of  it  accordingly.  It  is  not  far  from  the  truth 
to  say  that  wrong  principles  of  or  errors  in  classifying  fowls  according  to  the  purpose  for 
which  they  should  be  used,  cause  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  dissatisfaction  with  results 
which  buyers  of  eggs  and  stock  for  hatching  manifest.  To  misunderstandings  and  misap- 
prehensions of  the  points  involved  we  must  also  credit  the  perennial  discussion  of  "beauty 
and  utility,"  which,  in  general,  confuses  more  minds  than  it  clears. 

External    Characters    Enumerated. 

Whether  we  consider  a  fowl  as  an  individual  whole,  or  consider  it  section  by  section  and 
point  by  point,  the  various  characteristics  we  see  impress  the  eye  by  either  form  (including 
*i/e)  or  color,  or  both.  The  impression  in  any  particular  may  be  favorable  or  unfavorable. 
Without  attempting  to  make  and  maintain  sharp  distinctions  as  to  their  proper  classification,  I 
enumerate  the  following  characters  visible  to  and  measured  by  the  eye  as  having  value  or 
meaning  beyond  the  mere  fact  that  in  themselves  they  please,  o-r  fail  to  please,  the  beholder : — 

Size,  shape,  and  carriage  of  body. 

Size,  shape,  and  carriage  of  head,  (including  head  appurtenances  — comb,  wattles,  ear  lobes, 
crest,  beard). 

Size,  shape,  and  carriage  of  wings  and  tail. 

Size,  shape,  and  carriage  of  legs  and  feet. 

Color,  quantity,  and  quality  of  plumage. 

Color  and  texture  of  skin,  both  bare  parts  and  those  covered  with  feathers. 

Even  without  any  knowledge  of  ideas  prevalent  among  poultrymen,  a  person  would  con- 
clude after  reading  that  list  that  many  of  these  points  were  of  special  importance  only  under 


PRACTICAL  VALUE,  OF  FANCY  POINTS.  115 

special  circumstances,  and  that  in  a  great  many  cases,  if  not  generally,  they  were  immaterial. 
Ami  that  would  he  a  correct  conclusion.  But,  to  a  very  great  extent,  profitable  modern 
poultry  culture  consists  in  the  development  and  use  of  special  features  for  special  purposes, 
a  proposition  which  brings  us  back  again  to  the  relations  of  "  fancy"  and  "economic"  quali- 
ties of  ''beauty"  and  "utility,"  and  the  possibility  and  advisability  of  producing  from  the 
same  stock  individual  fowls  to  satisfy  more  than  one  special  demand.  The  practical  question, 
then,  in  each  instance  is  whether  the  features  the  breeder  would  like  to  combine  are  compat- 
ible or  necessarily  antagonistic. 

The    Logical    Fallacy. 

In  considering  the  possibility  of  producing  for  different  purposes  from  the  same  stock,  a 
great  many  fall  into  an  error  which  apparently  has  its  origin  in  the  fact  that  most  of  us  are 
by  nature  partisans,  inclined  to  take  extreme  positions,  and  to  regard  those  who  will  not  go 
with  us  to  our  extreme  as,  therefore,  at  the  opposite  extreme,  and  the  things  which  do  not 
suit  our  purpose  as,  therefore,  adapted  to  their  needs,  or  produced  by  their  methods.  There 
is  a  very  general  disposition  also  to  regard  everything  especially  prized  for  some  purpose  we 
do  not  appreciate  as  on  that  account  objectionable  for  purposes  we  seek,  and  this  is  responsible 
for  no  small  part  of  the  idiocies  that  enter  into  most  discussions  of  the  attitude  of  fanciers  to 
practical  poultry  men,  and  vice  versa. 

Such  a  statement  as  the  above,  when  put  In  the  form  of  a  general  proposition,  always 
seems  to  overstate  the  case,  but  if  the  reader  will  note  the  literature  of  the  never  ending 
debate,  and  the  frequent  incidental  references  to  points  in  controversy,  I  think  he  will  soon 
agree  that  the  application  of  a  little  simple  logic  to  the  situation  would  often  show  one  the 
•error  of  his  ideas  more  forcibly  than  reams  of  argument  in  opposition. 

"When  we  prove  a  proposition  false  we  do  not  necessarily  thereby  prove  a  contrary  propo- 
sition true.  Oftener  we  prove  only  that  the  point  is  immaterial,  but  that  "only"  may  mean" 
a  great  deal,  may,  in  fact,  be  of  greater  importance  than  to  have  proved  what  was  desired, 
for  the  more  immaterial  points  we  can  establish  the  easier  it  becomes  to  cater  to  demands 
bused  upon  such  immaterial  points,  while  still  maintaining  those  points  which  we  consider 
of  first  importance,  and  for  our  purposes  essential. 

Practical    Value    of   Fancy    Points. 

Before  taking  up  the  detailed  consideration  of  the  points  enumerated,  let  us  consider 
briefly  the  practical  value,  the  economic  or  cash  value  of  fowls  valuable  for  "fancy  points." 
As  \ve  shall  see  as  our  investigation  proceeds,  some  "fancy  points"  are  of  very  substantial 
value,  and  fanciers  are  to  be  blamed  not  for  preserving  them,  but  for  not  giving  more  atten- 
tion to  them.  But,  in  considering  his  own  attitude  toward  points  of  no  importance  to  him 
which  the  fanciers  prize,  the  so-called  practical  poultryman  should  look  at  these  points,  not 
merely  with  reference  to  their  value  to  his  trade.  He  should  consider  their  selling  value  to 
whoever  appreciates  them  and  wants  to  buy  them. 

While  it  is  true,  as  often  stated,  that  only  a  very  small  part  of  the  poultry  produced  is  or 
can  be  of  the  kind  that  commands  high  prices  for  fancy  purposes,  it  does  not  therefore  follow 
that  it  is  better  for  a  variety  or  breed  of  fowls,  or  better  for  most  poultry  keepers,  or  for 
the  industry  as  a  whole,  that  the  regulation  of  standards  and  types  should  follow  the  ideas  of 
the  class  containing  the  greatest  number.  The  reasonable  position  to  take  in  a  matter  of  this 
kind  is  that,  provided  the  qualities  the  mass  of  poultry  keepers  want  are  maintained,  every 
point  for  which  they  care  nothing  that  can  be  added  is  so  much  prospective  gain,  for  it  opens 
up  possibilities  of  profit  beyond  what  is  possible  in  the  class  of  fowls  which  suits  the  average 
keeper. 

It  is  after  we  have  reached  this  point  that  we  come  to  the  parting  of  the  ways  between 
•"  fancy  "  and  "  practical "  ideas.  It  may,  and  often  does  happen,  that  a  fowl,  or  the  fowls  of 
a  certain  stock  generally  possess  certain  characteristics  or  an  all  round  high  quality  from  the 
fancier's  point  of  view,  but  have  faults  which  make  them  far  from  desirable  for  economic 
purposes.  Now  as  long  as  these  are  not  faults  which  in  time  will  also  affect  their  "fancy" 
quality,  the  breeder  who  can  sell  them  «ill  at  fancy  prices  can  cbntinue  to  be  Indifferent  to 


116  LLSSONS  IN  POULTRY  KULPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

those  faults.  Indeed  it  would  be  foolish  for  him  to  neglect  the  trade  that  pays  good  prices, 
and  cater  to  that  which  halts  at  very  moderate  prices.  He  is  working  for  the  dollars  and 
cents  the  beauty  of  his  fowls  will  bring  him,  just  as  another  is  working  for  the  dollars  and 
cents  he  can  get  for  their  eggs  and  meat.  The  end  of  each  is  the  same  —  dollars  and  cents.  It 
is  on  the  method  of  getting  these  from  poultry  that  they  differ.  The  question  comes  how  fur 
the  same  kinds,  classes,  breeds,  and  varieties  of  fowls  can  be  maintained  of  the  same  uniform 
type  and  yet  be  well  adapted  to  both  purposes. 

The  study  of  the  values  of  external  characters  of  fowls  should  give  results  that  will  answer 
this  question  as  well  as  indicate  their  relation  to  strictly  consumptive  uses. 

Size. 

It  is  evident  from  a  comparison  of  fowls  of  sizes  within  the  ordinary  grades,  that  size  has  no 
necessary  relation  either  to  the  prolificacy  of  the  fowl,  or  the  quality  of  its  flesh,  or  to  its  vital- 
ity. When  we  come  to  a  consideration  of  the  extremes  in  size  the  conclusions  are  not  so  plain. 
In  bantams,  in  which  the  smallest  specimens  are  preferred,  these  small  specimens  are  to  some 
extent  the  result  of  inferior  digestive  and  assimilative  power,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  the  functional  inferiority  which  brought-about  the  desired  reduction  in  the  size 
of  the  fowl  would  be  a  bar  to  productiveness  —  perhaps  not  so  much  to  sexual  activity  as  to 
high  actual  prolificacy.  However,  no  study  of  that  point  has  been  made,  and  we  must  leave 
the  question  open.  There  have  been  instances  of  very  good  laying  by  bantams,  and  there  does 
not  seem  to  be  reason  to  say  that  bantams  in  every  way  normal  and  with  digestive  power  pro- 
portionately the  same  as  that  of  medium  sized  or  large  fowls,  should  not  lay  as  well.  In  fowls 
that  are  extremely  large  of  their  kind  it  sometimes  appears  that  their  great  bulk  resulted  from 
failure  to  develop  in  some  function  —  notably  the  sexual  function,  while  digestive  and  assimila- 
tive power  were  equal  to  ail  requirements  of  the  system.  If  at  the  age  when  sexual  activity 
should  manifest  itself  it  fails  to  do  so,  and  the  usual  quantities  of  food  are  consumed  the  result 
may  be  either  excessive  fat  or  growth,  the  former  condition  being,  1  think,  by  far  the  more 
common.  Such  conditions  are  abnormal.  That  very  large  fowls  may  be  as  prolific  as  any,  has 
been  seen  again  and  again.  The  common  opinion  that  large  fowls  are  always  coarse  mealed,  I 
believe  to  be  erroneous.  The  coarsest  fibred  poultry  meat  I  have  ever  seen  was  on  medium 
sized  fowls,  and  I  have  seen  as  fine  grained  meat  on  very  large  fowls  as  on  any.  The  shape  of 
the  fowl,  especially  the  character  of  the  bony  structure,  seem  to  me  to  have  a  much  more  inti- 
mate relation  to  texture  of  meat  than  has  size. 

The  reasons  given  for  some  small  and  some  large  fowls  being  poor  producers,  or  in  some 
cases  barren,  explain  bow  it  might  often  appear  that  large  fowls  were  lacking  in  productive 
capacity,  when  in  reality  the  size  resulted  from  some  interference  with  the  functional  develop- 
ment of  the  fowl. 

In  small  fowls  again  we  can  see  how  general  constitutional  weakness  interfering  with  the 
full  development  of  every  function  would  bring  about  lack  of  size  and  lack  of  reproductive 
quality  at  the  same  time.  This,  however,  would  not  be  observed  once  in  ten  times  for  the  other 
case,  for  very  small  fowls  are  apt  to  be  marketed,  while  the  best  developed  specimens  are 
retained  and  often  regarded  as  the  most  desirable  from  which  to  perpetuate  the  race. 

But  if  we  accept  the  reasons  given  we  may  admit  that  to  some  extent  departure  from  the 
normal  or  average  size  may  be  objectionable.  That  the  objection  applies  to  actual  size  cannot 
be  maintained  in  the  face  of  results  of  comparisons  between  fowls  of  the  same  size  from  breeds, 
in  which  the  average  size  is  different. 

The  final  conclusion  in  regard  to  size  is  that  in  any  long  established  breed  the  best  results  are 
likely  to  be  obtained  from  specimens  of  the  average  size.  To  put  it  another  way,  a  lot  of  aver- 
age sized  fowls  of  any  breed  taken  as  they  run,  would  be  much  more  likely  to  give  good  uni- 
form results  than  an  equal  lot  either  below  or  above  the  average  size.  But  in  making  and 
maintaining  improvements  in  poultry,  we  always  seek  to  go  a  little  beyond  average  conditions 
or  results,  and  when  we  find,  as  we  sometimes  do,  specimens  large  or  small  of  their  kind  with 
normal  vitality,  productiveness,  and  meat  quality,  we  can,  if  we  succeed  in  reproducing  in  its 
progeny  the  combinations  in  an  individual,  soon  establish  a  stock  of  whatever  type,  including 
size,  we  desire. 


IMPORTANCE.  OF  SIZE.  —  5HAPL  OF  BODY.  117 

Apart  from  any  possible  or  fancied  relation  between  size  and  actual  quality  and  productive 
capacity,  the  matter  .of  size  is  sometimes  of  great  importance.  Certain  sizes  of  fowls  are  in 
more  general  demand  for  certain  purposes  than  others.  Thus  in  our  markets  generally  con- 
turners  call  for  fowls  dressing  four  to  live  pounds  each.  This  size  is  what  is  most  in  demand 
foi-  ordinary  roasters  and  for  fowls.  The  demand  for  larger  fowls  is  more  limited,  and  many 
times  the  large  fowl  has  to  be  sold  at  less  per  pound  than  the  smaller  one.  Except  in  localities 
where  there  is  a  special  demand  for  extra  large  roasters,  it  is  no  advantage  to  a  poultryman 
producing  for  market  to  have  his  stock  run  larger  than  five  pounds  each.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  the  fancier  breeding  Asiatics  or  breeding  fowls  of  the  American  class  generally  up  to 
standard  weights,  fowls  dressing  five  to  four  pounds  each  are  medium  to  email  in  size.  Com- 
pared with  the  bulk  of  poultry  marketed  they  are  good  sized  to  large  fowls.  Breeders  of 
thoroughbred  fowls  divide  quite  sharply  on  the  question  of  size,  especially  as  to  the  desirability 
of  maintaining  full  standard  weights,  or,  perhaps,  exceeding  them.  In  the  hands  of  most 
poultrymen  all  breeds  deteriorate  in  size.  Hence  there  is  a  very  widespread  demand  for  large 
fowls  for  breeding  purposes  to  counteract  this  tendency.  But  this  demand  is  not  merely  a 
demand  for  size.  It  calls  for  good  size  with  general  excellence  and  vigor.  I  think  it  may  be 
truthfully  said  that  great  or  excessive  size  In  fowls  that  have  no  other  claims  to  attention  is 
not  especially  valued  by  one  poultryman  in  a  hundred. 

Taking  five  to  six  pounds  live  weight  as  the  most  desirable  weights  for  the  poultry  farmer, 
and  therefore  bis  standard  weights,  we  may  say  that  above  these  weights  size  is  desirable  some- 
times in  special  markets,  and  quite  generally  in  breeding  birds,  counteract  the  tendency  the 
other  way;  while  everything  below  thrse  weights  falls  short  of  the  standard  for  general 
demands,  is  a  little  less  satisfactory  for  market,  and  to  be  used  in  breeding  only  with  mates 
large  enough  to  offset  its  deficiency. 

Shape   of   Body. 

Not  as  much  now  as  some  years  ago,  but  yet  a  great  deal,  is  said  of  the  shape  of  the  body 
of  a  fowl  as  an  index  of  laying  capacity.  Like  many  other  theories,  the  idea  that  a  fowl 
with  a  long,  deep,  wedge  shaped  body  is  the  best"  machine"  for  the  production  of  eggs,  looks 
very  plausible.  But  it  has  not  stood  either  close  observation  or  practical  tests.  Still  there  is  a 
certain  correlation  between  shape  of  body  and  producing  capacity.  There  must  be  an  appre- 
ciable fullness  in  the  lines  of  the  body  to  give  suitable  accommodation  to  well  developed  internal 
organs.  The  proportions  may  not  be  ideal.  They  may  seem  objectionable  according  to 
accepted  standards  of  shape  for  the  breed  to  which  a  fowl  belongs,  but  if  there  is  nothing  in 
the  shape  suggestive  of  weakness  or  deformity,  one  type  is  as  good  as  another  for  egg  produc- 
tion as  far  as  the  evidence  goes. 

In  table  quality  shape  counts  for  a  great  deal.  The  most  desirable  carcass  is  that  which 
carries  the  largest  proportion  of  white  meat.  This  meat  is  on  the  breast,  body,  and  wings. 
It  constitutes  the  muscular  system  for  the  wings,  and  there  is  therefore  a  very  necessary  cor- 
relation between  good  breast  development  and  power  of  flight,  (or  perhaps  I  had  better  say 
capacity  lor  flight).  With  power  of  flight,  as  a  rule,  we  also  find  associated  greater  general 
activity.  This  is  as  true  when  we  compare  specimens  of  the  same  breeds  as  when  we  compare 
different  breeds.  I  have  often  had  occasion  to  note  in  handling  Light  Brahmas  that  those  with 
well  developed  breasts  were  more  energetic  and  active  than  ttie  others,  and  consequently  less 
liable  to  the  ills  which  result  so  quickly  from  inactivity  in  heavy  fowls*  In  such  comparisons 
as  this  we  must  of  course  make  allowances  for  the  effects  of  condition  and  habit,  but  I  think 
it  will  l>e  found  generally  true  that  under  the  same  conditions  fowls  with  well  developed 
breasts  not  only  look  more  robust  than  those  deficient  in  that  section,  but  are  inclined  to  be 
more  alert  and,  as  a  class,  are  more  free  from  disease,  and  have  a  longer  productive  life. 

The  apparent  size  of  the  breast  does  not,  however,  depend  exclusively  on  wing  power  or 
capacity.  Sometimes  we  find  fowls  which,  when  carved,  yield  more  breast  meat  than  their 
appearance  indicated,  because  the  bones  of  that  region  are  contracted,  reducing  the  space 
occupied  by  the  heart  and  lungs,  thus  compressing  those  organs  within  the  space  they 
normally  occupy,. or  by  crowding  them  on  others.  Such  specimens  are  usually  those  which  a 
poultryman  with  an  eye  for  good  shape  discards  on  general  principles  even  before  they  have 
had  time  to  show  what  excellence  they  might  develop. 


118  LL550N5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SLCOND  5LRIES. 

Conversely,  we  find  m;tny  specimens  much  more  deficient  in  breast  meat  than  their  appear- 
ance as  they  stand  in  life  would  indicate.  In  these  the  "  trunk"  is  amply  developed,  but  the 
capacity  for  flight  is  smajl.  Naturally  the  most  conspicuous  instances  are  found  in  the  larger 
breeds,  but  cases  in  plenty  may  be  found  everywhere.  It  is  a  fact  sometimes  lost  sight  of 
that  in  proportions  of  desirable  meat  such  breeds  as  Polish,  Hamburg.*,  and  Leghorns  excel 
so-called  general  purpose  and  table  fowls.  The  objection  to  them  for  table  purposes  is  then- 
lack  of  size,  and  the  precocity  which  makes  the  meat,  especially  in  the  males,  hard  and  dry 
long  before  they  have  reached  full  growth. 

Breadth  and  straightness  of  back  are  highly  desirable  attributes  of  shape  in  fowls.  The 
apparent  shape  of  the  back,  (more  perhaps  than  of  any  other  part,  though  all  are  subject  to 
the  same  influence),  depends  much  on  its  length,  on  the  general  carriage  of  the  fowl,  and  on 
the  quantity  of  the  plumage.  Close  observation  of  this  section  in  fowls  will  soon  show  the 
reader  that  it  contains  a  great  deal  of  "character."  Apart  from  its  outward  expressiveness 
of  strength  and  vitality  which  a  good  back  gives  in  a  fowl  as  in  man  and  other  animals,  the 
straight  wide  back  in  the  fowl  indicates  a  normally  formed  body  cavity  in  which  the  organs  are 
in  all  probability  constitutionally  and  mechanically  perfect,  while  any  irregularity  or  narrow- 
ness or  deformity  of  the  back  indicates  weakness  of  structure,  possibly  malformations  or 
internal  organs,  and,  quite  certainly,  limitations  on  the  operation  of  the  functions  of  tho>e 
organs. 

With  good  development  of  back  and  breast  it  is  usual  to  find  the  abdominal  region  in  keep- 
Ing;  but  we  do  sometimes  see  specimens  in  which  the  development  here  is  conspicuously  lack- 
ing. The  length  and  texture  of  the  feathers  on  tHe  abdomen  have  much  to  do  with  its  appear- 
ance. If  it  is  evident  that  the  deficiency  is  not  a  superficial  one,  but  that  there  is  an  actual  lack 
of  development  here,  I  think  it  will  be  found  that  a  female  so  formed  is  either  a  poor  layer  or 
a  producer  of  small  eggs,  or  that  she  is  ei^pecially  liable  to  trouble  in  passing  eggs,  ail  of  which 
faults  are  associated  with  the  fault  in  mechanical  structure  of  the  fowl.  The  posterior  develop- 
ment which  some  regard  as  a  sure  "sign"  of  a  good  layer  may  be  a  help  or  a  hindrance  in  the 
production  Of  eggs,  but  it  neither  causes  nor  regulates  egg  production. 

In  males  the  abdomen  is  naturally  not  so  well  developed  as  in  females,  and  has  no  particular 
significance  as  long  as  it  does  not  suggest  deformity.  Males  from  a  line  in  which  the  females 
are  full  in  this  section  will  sometimes  be  larger  here  than  is  consistent  with  a  trim  figure  and 
pleasing  carriage  in  a  male,  but  such  a  fault  belongs  to  the  class  known  as  "good  faults." 

Shape  as  the  characteristic  of  a  breed,  is  simply  the  type  which  those  interested  in  the  breed 
have  decided  upon  as  the  standard.  In  some  strains  and  stocks  of  fowls  the  breeder  has  suc- 
ceeded in  fixing  shape  to  which  his  fowls  conform  with  quite  as  much  accuracy  as  to  the  stand- 
ard for  color,  but  in  most  stocks  of  all  varieties  variations  in  shape  are  common  and  numerous. 
It  is  only  the  occasional  breeder  and  judge  that  give  breed  shape  the  consideration  it  should 
have.  While  the  breeder  of  thoroughbred  fowls  for  sale  and  competition  will  find  some  recog- 
nition of  success  in  breeding  fowls  that  are  models  in  form,  he  will  rarely  find  it  fully  appre- 
ciated unless  combined  with  a  superiority  in  superficial  points  which  challenges  attention. 
Then  it  is  likely  to  get  due  recognition. 

It  is  held  by  some  that  in  each  breed  there  is  a  certain  shape  which  represents  the  highest 
utility  development  of  the  breed.  Accord  ing  to  the  same  authorities  there  is  also  for  each  breed 
a  certain  size  with  which  the  highest  excellence  \s  associated.  It  requires  but  a  very  limited 
observation  of  fowls  to  convince  an  unbiased  mind  that  these  views  are  both  erroneous. 

Carriage. 

The  carriage  of  a  fowl,  its  habitual  attitudes  and  movements,  have  significance  first  of  all  as 
an  expression  of  its  degree  of  vitality  and  health.  When  sick  or  tired  the  actions  and  attitudes 
of  fowls  of  all  breeds  are  singularly  alike.  When  in  health  and  good  spirits  different  classes  of 
fowls  and  sometimes  to  a  lesser  degree  different  breeds  of  the  same  class,  exhibit  peculiarities 
of  carriage  which  are  regarded  as  desirable  characteristics  of  the  breed,  and  which  sometimes 
are  a  considerable  factor  in  breed  shape.  But  without  strict  regard  to  breed  characteristics 
many  specimens  show  a  distinctive  and  pleasing  carriage  which  commends  them  to  a  buyer, 
and  often  wins  them  a  better  place  than  they  would  otherwise  get  in  competition. 


EXPRESSION    IN    HEAD    CHARACTERS.  119 

Head  Characters. 

Fowls  differ  as  much  in  size,  shape,  and  expression  of  the  head  as  in  size  and  shape  of  body 
and  color  of  plumage.  Marked  differences  in  head  types  may  be  found  in  the  same  variety, 
and  even  in  birds  of  the  same  strain  or  stock.  We  are  j-o  accustomed  to  consider  the  head  as  a 
mere  base  for  its  appurtenances,  beak,  comb,  earlobes,  wattles,  crest,  beard,  that  it  is  only  in  a 
very  few  breeds  that  size  and  shape  of  the  head  proper  are  given  particular  consideration. 
The  head  least  adorned  with  superfluiiies  in  flesh  and  feathers  is  the  most  expressive  of  quality, 
for  in  it  the  correlation  with  the  other  parts  of  the  fowl  is  discernible,  while  a  head  profusely 
ornamented  does  not  show  for  what  it  is.  Undoubtedly  the  character  is  there,  but  the  append- 
ages are  so  much  more  prominent  that  it  is  not  readily  observed. 

This  lack  of  discernment  of  the  character  of  the  head  proper  is  not,  however,  a  serious  mat- 
ter. For  as  the  head  expresses  with  reasonable  accuracy  the  character  of  some  points  of 
structure  of  body  and  of  constitution,  its  appendages  generally  partake  of  the  character  of 
head  and  body,  and  by  their  greater  conspicuousness  show  them  even  more  unmistakably  to 
those  versed  in  their  meanings.  The  com  I),  the  wattles,  the  earlobes,  the  face,  the  beak,  the 
eyes,  all  tell  the  shrewd  observer  something  worth  while  for  him  to  know.  I  would  not  be  too 
positive  in  making  a  statement  of  this  kind,  but  I  think  that  though  they  may  not  always  realize 
it,  most  critical  judges  of  a  fowl  by  external  appearances  are  more  influenced  by  the  character 
of  the  head  of  the  fowl  than  by  the  shape  of  the  body,  that  tbe  expression  and  impression  on 
their  eye  of  the  head  of  the  bird  has  an  influence  on  their  judgment  of  it  as  a  whole  which  is 
not  often  changed  as  they  pass  the  other  sections  in  detail.  To  the  average  poultryman  of 
tolerably  keen  perceptions,  crests  and  beards  have  less  meaning  as  expressing  tbe  general  char- 
acter of  the  fowl,  but  to  the  breeder  of  crested  and  bearded  fowls  who  has  studied  them  closely 
they  mean  much.  Indeed  it  is  in  perception  and  appreciation  of  tbe  correlation  of  the  parts 
and  qualities  of  fowls  with  details  which  ordinarily  escape  notice  that  the  skillful  breeder  ha» 
his  greatest  advantage  over  others. 

I  do  not  think  it  can  be  shown  that  the  size  of  combs,  wattles,  earlobes,  crests,  and  beards 
has  any  special  relation  to  any  practical  quality.  Large  combs  are  sometimes  said  to  indicate 
laying  capacity,  but  I  have  not  found  it  so  in  individuals,  nor  will  a  comparison  of  breeds  dif- 
fering in  size  of  comb  substantiate  this  idea. 

The  shape  of  the  comb  we  must  consider  in  two  ways :  First,  as  to  the  kind —  single,  rose, 
pea,  leaf,  It  is  often  said  that  rose  and  pea  combed  fowls  stand  cold  better  than  those  with 
single  combs.  This  is  but  a  half  truth.  It  depends  as  much  on  the  size  as  on  the  shape  of  the 
comb,  and  we  have  to  consider  also  the  development  of  the  wattles,  with  relation  to  suscepti- 
bility to  cold  and  frost.  A  very  large  fleshy  rose  comb  that  has  no  spike,  is  lumpy  and  only  a 
"rose  comb"  because  it  is  not  anything  else,  is  often  associated  with  very  long,  pendulous  wat- 
tles which  freeze  as  quickly  as  the  wattles  of  a  large  single  combed  fowl.  A  rose  comb  of  the 
type  generally  preferred  in  Wyandottes  is  usually  associated  with  a  medium  sized  wattle  not 
readily  affected  by  cold.  A  single  combed  fowl  having  wattles  of  the  same  size  generally  has  a 
comb  low  enough  not  to  be  affected  by  frost  at  any  temperature  that  would  not  affect  the 
wattles.  We  must  count  size  of  comb  then  as  a  point  indicating  in  a  general  way  the  capacity 
of  u  breed  of  fowls  to  resist  cold. 

When  it  comes  to  tbe  matter  of  individual  resistance  to  cold,  the  comb,  unless  quite  incon- 
spicuous, becomes  a  very  accurate  indicator.  Observe  your  fowls  on  any  raw  cold  day,  and 
see  how  some  combs  are  bright  as  usual,  others  slightly  discolored,  and  others  quite  blue  or 
purp.e.  The  discoloration  of  some  combs  may  indicate  only  constitutional  susceptibility  to 
cold,  or  it  may  mean  that  the  fowl  is  at  the  time  out  of  condition  and  therefore  unusually  su>- 
ceptible  to  climatic  influences. 

The  texture  of  the  comb  is  also  a  point  of  importance.  The  fancier  prizes  fine  texture  in 
the  comb  for  itself;  the  poultry  grower  because  he  considers  it  an  indication  of  fineness  of  tii>er 
in  the  meat  of  the  fowl.  The  carriage  of  the  comb  in  single  combed  fowls  conveys  Impressions 
which  probably  are  misleading,  though  I  would  not  care  to  dogmati/e  on  this  point.  A  cornl> 
that  is  erect  and  smooth  looks  strong  and  gives  the  fowl  an  appearance  of  strength.  A  coml> 
that  bulges,  bends,  lops  or  wrinkles  suggests  weakness,  just  as  any  lack  of  symmetry  does,  but 
1  doubt  whether  any  ratio  dependent  upon  such  variations  could  be  established. 


120  LESSON5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  — SECOND  SERIES. 

Considering  the  shape  of  the  comb  and  wattles  as  compared  with  others  of  the  same  kind  : 
It  is  found  that  there  is  a  type  of  unsymmetrical  comb  quite  common  in  all  fowls,  and  espe- 
cially conspicuous  in  single  combed  fowls,  which  gives  an  expression  in  the  fowl  correspond- 
ing to  that  made  by  a  human  profile  with  retreating  forehead  and  chin.  With  such  a  comb 
is  usually  associated  a  rather  long  narrow  head  and  a  bill  that  without  being  abnormally 
long,  and  giving  the  fowl  a  "  peaked"  look,  yet  conveys  an  impression  of  lack  of  force  and 
stamina.  It  is  commonly  held  that  such  fowls  are  lacking  in  sexual  vigor.  I  think  this 
•opinion  requires  modification.  My  observation  of  such  fowls  suggests  that  the  reproductive 
faculties  are  as  active  in  them  as  in  others,  but  that  their  operation  tends  to  exhaust  the 
vitality  of  the  fowl  more  rapidly,  that  it  is  a  lack  of  general  stamina  rather  than  of  sexual 
•capacity.  The  precise  understanding  of  it,  however,  is  not  a  matter  worth  quarreling  over. 
It  is  a  quite  well  assumed  fact  that  such  birds  are  not  desirable  breeders,  and  the  hens  not 
likely  to  be  as  persistent  layers  as  those  more  symmetrical  in  these  points. 

To  the  shape  of  the  bill  fanciers  attach  considerable  importance.  In  nearly  all  breeds  a 
strong,  sometimes  stout,  well  curved  or  moderately  curved  bill  is  required.  Such  a  bill  looks 
better  than  one  that  falls  short  of  the  specifications.  Market  poultrymen  find  the  strong, 
stout,  well  curved  bill  the  mark  of  a  good  feeder.  Experimenters  in  special  fattening  meth«ds 
say  birds  with  such  bills  are  much  better  subjects  for  fattening. 

The  color  of  the  bill  is  a  point  of  importance  to  the  fancier.  He  requires  a  bill  of  a  cer- 
tain color  in  each  breed.  To  the  market  poultryman  the  color  of  the  bill  is  of  importance 
only  as  it  indicates  the  color  of  the  skin.  The  bill  is  almost  invariably  of  the  color  of  the 
legs,  and  generally  the  skin  of  the  fowl  corresponds  both  as  to  kind  and  quality  of  color. 
Thus  in  bill  and  legs  one  may  judge  the  color  of  the  skin  of  a  fowl  without  examining  under 
the  feathers. 

To  the  color  and  expression  of  the  eye  breeders  attach  great  importance — far  more  than  a 
•careful  comparison  of  results  has  ever  showed  me.  It  is  held  that  a  red  eye  indicates  vigor 
«nd  vitality,  especially  sexual  vitality.  It  certainly  gives  an  impression  of  boldness  and 
strength  to  a  bird,  but  I  question  whether  this  impression  has  any  belter  basis  than  general 
opinion.  We  in  this  country  also  think  white  or  flesh  colored  bills  and  legs  make  a  fowl 
look  weak  as  compared  with  one  in  which  bill  and  l<jgs  are  a  good  yellow,  but  the  facts 
about  the  breeds  do  not  substantiate  this  view. 

The    Wings    and    Tail. 

The  size  and  shape  of  the  wings  of  a  fowl  would  naturally  be  expected  to  be  in  proportion 
to  the  development  of  the  breast,  which  is  largely  the  development  of  the  muscles  which 
move  the  wings.  In  general  the  proportion  is  probably  maintained.  This  we  may  conclude 
from  a  comparison  of  breeds.  How  closely  the  correlation  of  size  of  wings  and  development 
of  breast  is  maintained  in  individuals,  I  do  not  think  has  ever  been  made  the  subject  of 
inquiry. 

We  look  usually  for  a  similar  degree  of  development  in  the  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail 
of  the  fowl,  and  such  probably  exists,  according  to  a  natural  law,  except  where,  by  artificial 
selection,  different  degrees  of  development  have  been  brought  about.  With  general  similarity 
of  development  there  is  always  much  individual  variation.  This  probably  has  no  particular 
(meaning.  Indeed,  if  one  were  to  attempt  to  make  the  supposed  meanings  or  values  of  differ- 
ent external  characters  harmonize  with  each  other  he  soon  arrives  at  a  situation  where  he  must 
-either  admit  that  some  thing*  he  felt  very  sure  indicated  certain  qualities  are  really  imma- 
terial with  respect  to  those  qualities,  and  their  simultaneous  occurrence  merely  a  coincidence, 
or,  that  the  whole  subject  is  so  complex  that  he  cannot  follow  it  in  detail.  For  instance:  We 
may  note  in  general  that  a  fowl  with  large  tail  has  large  wings.  The  tail  of  the  male  bird  is 
n  sexual  character,  and  its  development  is  with  some  reason  supposed  to  bear  some  relation  to 
liis  sexual  development.  That  it  is  a  measure  of  such  development  I  would  not  affirm,  though 
it  is  well  known  that  males  with  "  hen  tails,"  the  Standard  type  in  Sebright  bantams,  are  likely 
to  be  sterile  or  quite  so.  For  a  male  to  be  well  furnished  with  distinctive  male  plumage,  neck 
hackle,  saddle,  hangers,  and  tail  with  abundant  coverts  is  generally  supposed  to  indicate 
virility. 


THL  SIGNIFICANCE.  OF  CARRIAGFL.  121 

There  is  as  we  have  seen,  a  general  correlation  of  the  size  of  the  wings  to  the  development  of 
the  breast.  Now,  unless  we  assume  that  there  is  no  correlation,  or  no  meaning  in  correlation, 
of  the  stiff  or  main  tail  feathers  with  the  soft  feathers  of  the  tail  which  cover  them,  we  find, 
reasoning  from  one  conclusion  to  another,  that  a  well  developed  breast  is  an  indication  of  sex- 
ual activity.  And  if  we  pursue  this  same  course  of  reasoning  from  section  to  section  through- 
out I  think  we  will  finally  resolve  the  whole  matter  into  the  simple  general  proposition  that  the 
fowl  that  is  best  developed  physically,  that  is,  with  the  best  all  round  development,  should  be 
the  most  productive  lowl  and  the  most  reliable  breeder.  Such  a  proposition  looks  very  reason- 
able, but  every  experienced  poultryman  and  breeder  knows  that  though  partly  true  it  is  true 
with  so  many  modifications  and  limitations  that  it  does  not  furnish  the  simple  rule  it  would  if 
absolutely  correct. 

The  carriage  of  wings  and  tail  we  do  not  readily  dissociate  from  the  general  carriage  of  tbc 
fowl,  for  its  habit  with  regard  to  them  is  what  makes  fully  fifty  per  cent  of  its  distinctive 
carriage.  Fanciers  find  that  bad  faults  in  carriage  of  these  parts,  whether  due  to  malforma- 
tions or  to  laziness  and  general  lack  of  liveliness,  are  very  persistent  in  the  progeny  of  fowls. 
Not  only  so,  but  they  are  distinctly  a  handicap  to  a  fowl  in  the  exhibition  room,  and  also  con- 
tribute to  an  unfavorable  first  impression  which  makes  them  less  salable  than  birds  that  are 
full  of  life  and  style. 

Any  departure  from  the  usual  habit  of  carrying  tail  and  wings  indicates  a  degree  of  exhaus- 
tion or  perhaps  the  presence  of  disease.  A  fowl  that  is  weak  and  debilitated  carries  Its  wings 
and  tail  as  if  they  were  burdens  and  incurnbrances,  dragging  it  down.  A  fowl  in  the  full  vigor 
of  health  carries  wings  and  tail  so  easily  and  naturally  as  to  attract  no  special  attention  to  them 
as  parts  of  itself,  or  uses  them  so  handily  that  they  add  to  the  impression  of  beauty,  strength, 
and  gracefulness  which  it  makes. 

The  Legs  and   Feet. 

In  the  shank  and  foot  of  the  fowl  we  have  the  most  reliable  external  sign  of  some  thiu-gs  of 
importance.  It  is  the  only  part  of  the  frame  of  the  fowl  not  so  covered  with  feathers  that  we 
cannot  judge  by  sight  of  the  general  character  of  the  skeleton  or  frame  work  of  the  fowl.  The 
shank,  and  especially  the  clean,  unfeatbered  shank,  indicates  very  accurately  the  character  of 
the  skeleton  of  the  fowl.  If  it  is  fine  with  small,  neat  joints,  that  same  structure  will  be  found 
throughout,  and  in  such  a  fowl  there  will  appear  to  be  a  larger  proportion  of  edible  meat  and 
less  waste  in  bone,  tendons,  and  cartilage  The  common  belief  is  that  this  not  only  appears  to 
be,,but  is  actually  the  case.  Mr.  Brown,  in  the  chapter  of  his  book  to  which  I  have  frequently 
made  reference,  quotes  M.  Abozine  as  stating  at  the  poultry  conference  at  St.  Petersburg  some 
years  ago,  that  "on  examination  of  the  skeletons  of  a  large  number  of  fowls  he  always  found 
that  the  relative  weight  of  the  dried  skeletons  to  that  of  the  entire  living  bird  and  its  edible 
parts  is  the  same  for  all  breeds,  and  equivalent  to  six  per  cent."  Mr.  Brown  quotes  this  state- 
ment as  one  calling  for  further  inquiry.  I  would  not  deny  it  in  the  face  of  what  purports  to 
be  a  careful  report,  nor  would  I  indorse  it  without  more  extended  investigation.  If  it  is  cor- 
rect there  is  no  variation  in  proportions  of  weight  of  skeleton  to  flesh,  and  some  of  our  ideas 
•about  producing  table  poultry  carrying  the  largest  possible  proportion  of  edible  meat,  seem  to 
be  wrong. 

However,  this  theory,  though  it  may,  if  proved,  contradict  the  old  dictum  that  in  a  fine 
honed  fowl  the  skeleton  is  produced  at  less  cost,  does  not  necessarily  interfere  with  the  idea 
that  fineness  of  bone  is  associated  as  a  rule  with  fineness  of  flesh.  This,  I  think,  is  the  general 
and  apparently  well  founded  belief  of  most  of  those  who  handle  poultry.  Prof.  W.  R.  Graham, 
in  a  recent  lecture  called  attention  to  the  texture  of  the  skin  of  the  shank  of  a  fowl  as  always 
indicating  the  texture  and  quality  of  the  flesh  as  well  as  of  the  skin  covered  with  feathers. 
This  point  I  had  noted  in  a  number  of  cases,  but  not  enough  to  enable  me  to  be  as  positive  of 
its  general  truth  as  he  was.  Knowing  how  thoroughly  he  has  gone  into  the  subject  of  table 
poultry,  I  think  his  judgment  on  this  point  worth  acceptance. 

The  carriage  of  the  feet  and  legs  —  the  fowl's  way  of  standing  and  walking  —  go  far  toward 
the  making  of  the  impression  it  presents.  To  some  extent  the  position  of  the  legs  and  feet 
are  dependent  upon  the  general  structure  of  which  they  are  apart,  yet  often  peculiarities  in 


122  LL550N5  IN  POULTRY  KE.LPI NO  — SECOND  5LR1LS. 

regard  to  them  are  plainly  local,  and  in  their  eontrilm'  on  to  the  carriage  of  the  bird  they 
express  its  spirit  quite  as  faithfully  and  conspicuously  as  do  some  of  the  superior  sections. 
I  do  not  know  that  there  is  anything  indicated  in  the  legs  and  feet  of  a  fowl  that  cannot  he 
known  without  special  reference  to  them.  Their  indications  of  structure  and  of  quality  of 
flesh  are  discernible  also  in  the  head  and  coral).  The  testimony  of  different  parts  of  the  fowl 
to  the  same  facts,  however,  is  cumulative,  and  ought  to  make  the  requisite  impression  oa 
the  person  seeking  for  evidence  of  quality,  or  lack  of  it,  much  more  forcible  than  if  conSned 
to  a  single  section.  Further,  all  do  not -value  the  same  sections  alike,  and  evidence  of  a  fault 
appearing  in  one  section  might  make  little  impression  on  one  mind,  while  the  evidence  of  the 
same  fault  in  another  section  would  make  a  very  strong  impression.  So,  also,  with  respect  to 
excellence.  Some  require  one  sign,  some  another,  of  the  same  quality.  Whoever  depends  on 
a  single  point  is  apt  to  find  his  judgment  on  it  occasionally  leading  him  astray,  while  with 
two  or  three  points  of  veiw,  if  his  udgment  misses  on  one  he  is  likely  to  be  set  right  on 
another.  Thus  I  have  known  men  who  saw  in  a  peaked  looking  beak  and  head  only  evidence 
of  "  fineness,"  but  when  they  looked  at  the  unsymmetrical,  rough,  or  shriveled  looking  shanks 
and  toes  of  the  same  specimen,  saw  at  once  that  it  was  weakness. 

The  condition  of  the  legs  is  generally  considered  a  reliable  index  of  the  age  of  a  fowl,  but 
it  is  as  often  misleading.  To  mistake  the  legs  of  an  immature  fowl  for  those  of  a  mature 
fowl,  if  both  were  In  good  condition,  wou'd  be  quite  impossible  to  most  experienced  poultry- 
men,  but  as  soon  as  the  legs  and  toes  begin  to  be  out  of  condition,  either  because  of  external 
conditions  or  because  of  the  condition  of  the  fowl,  judgment  by  them  becomes  all  guessing, 
while  in  the  case  of  mature  fowls  age  alone  may  make  little  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the 
leg  of  the  yearling  and  the  bird  of  two,  three,  or  four  years. 

In  young  chickens  the  leg  and  foot  often  furnish  the  first  indication  of  trouble.  Especially  is 
this  the  case  witli  chickens  raised  artificially.  Improper  temperatures  and  lack  of  ventilation 
soon  show  their  effects  on  the  feet,  which  seem  to  wither  away,  while  the  chick  that  finds  con- 
ditions  right  has  a  smooth  skinned,  well  rounded,  sturdy  looking  pair  of  legs  under  it. 

Color,    Quantity,    and    Quality  of    Plumage. 

The  color  of  a  fowl  in  no  way  influences  any  other  quality,  though  color  defects  are  some- 
times (perhaps  rightly)  held  to  indicate  a  degree  or  period  of  weakness.  Thus  in  black  fowls 
if  a  feather  containing  some  white  or  gray,  wfien  plucked,  is  replaced  by  a  solid  black  feather, 
the  presumption  is  that  the  first  feather  was  not  perfect  because  of  some  lack  of  perfect  con- 
dition in  the  fowl.  But  it  would  be  hard  to  show  by  comparison  of  black  fowls  that  tl\ose 
with  a  trifle  of  white  in  the  plumage  were  in  any  way,  except  in  this  variation  from  Standard 
color,  inferior  to  either  the  solid  black  birds  or  to  those  which,  from  excess  of  coloring  pigment, 
showed  purple  bars  in  the  black.  The  actual  difference  is  too  trifling—  even  if  it  does  exist- 
to  have  an  influence  marked  enough  to  be  noticeable. 

Superficially,  however,  and  considered  with  reference  to  the  demand  for  certain  colors  and 
markings  in  exhibition  fowls,  and  with  reference  to  such  points  as  ease  of  dressing  and  the 
better  appearance  of  fowls  of  certain  colors  when  dressed,  color  is  of  great  importance. 
With  the  fancier  excellence  in  color  compensates  for  many  serious  faults  in  other  matters,  and 
a  fowl  remarkable  for  color  will  sell  or  win  regardless  of  other  faults  where  a  fowl  poor  in 
color  would  not  be  considered  for  its  other  merits.  It  is  the  fowl  of  this  character  which  the 
"  utility  "  poultry  keeper  should  buy  of  the  fancier — a  cull  for  superficial  faults  in  no  way 
affecting  any  substantial  quality.  This  is  a  point  both  breeder  and  buyer  should  keep  con- 
stantly in  mind.  The  utility  poultryman  wants  not  any  cull  from  the  fancier's  yard,  but  the 
bird  which  is  a  cull  from  the  fancier's  point  of  vision,  and  at  the  same  time  not  a  cull  from 
his  own. 

The  history  of  the  popularity  of  varieties  of  poultry  indicates  that  even  those  who  do  not 
breed  for  high  excellence  in  color  and  markings  are  not  long  satisfied  with  fowls  that,  as  they 
run  with  ordinary  selection  in  breeding,  show  too  great  diversity  of  color.  This  accounts  in 
part  for  the  steadily  increasing  preference  for  white  fowls  —  the  fact  that  the  white  fo^l  is 
at  any  age  easy  to  dress  clean,  the  pin  feathers  not  being  full  of  pigment  which,  if  It  exudes, 
stains  the  carcass,  and  if  it  remains  in  the  quill  disfigures  it. 


COLOR  AND  TLXTURL  OF  5K1N.  123 

The  quantity  of  plutmge,  profuse  or  scanty,  is  advantageous  or  otherwise  according  to 
conditions.  The  Asiatic  with  abundant  plumage  will  stand  cold  and  exposure  better  than  any 
other  fowl,  but  in  a  long  experience  with  Asiatics  1  have  found  that  in  extremely  hot  periods 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  adult  fowls  will  die  simply  from  the  effects  of  heat  than  of 
any  other  fowls. 

The  young  stock,  not  often  being  in  full  plumage  In  summer,  is  rtot  often  so  affected.  Fowls 
with  short  or  scant  plumage  stand  hot  weather  best,  and  are  most  susceptible  to  cold  and  to 
such  temperature  changes  as  are  common  in  fall,  winter,  and  spring.  There  seems  to  be  a  close 
connection  between  abundance  of  feathering  and  foot  feathering.  Not  that  the  two  points  are 
not  separable,  but  in  general  in  a  feather  legged  breed  the  volume  of  the  foot  feathering  is  in 
proportion  to  the  length  and  abundance  of  the  plumage  of  the  body.  It  is  notable,  also,  that 
an  excess  of  plumage  on  the  body  and  feet  of  the  fowl  is  often,  (if  not  generally)  associated 
with  a  shortening  of  the  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail,  and  (whether  there  is  any  necessary 
relation  of  these  facts,  I  do  not  know)  twisted  wing  feathers  and  wing  feathers  narrow  almost 
to  deformity,  are  far  more  common  in  heavily  feathered  fowls  than  in  those  in  which  the 
development  of  feathers  is  more  moderate. 

The  quality  of  the  plumage,  like  the  texture  of  the  skin  of  the  fowl,  is  an  index  of  its 
physical  condition,  and  varies  with  it.  This  is  a  point  to  which  little  attention  is  given  by  any 
class  of  poultrymen. 

Color    and   Texture    of  Skin. 

Some  reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  texture  of  the  skin  of  the  legs  in  relation  to  the 
texture  of  the  flesh.  The  fancier,  as  a  fancier,  takes  no  specific  account  of  the  skin  of  the 
fowl  that  is  covered  with  feathers,  hut  if  the  skin  of  the  exposed  parts,  the  head,  legs,  and 
feet,  is  what  it  should  be  the  skin  that  is  concealed  is  not  at  all  likely  to  be  wrong,  for  there 
is  a  natural  correlation  of  texture  and  quality  of  the  skin  which  extends  to  all  parts. 

The  skin  of  the  exposed  parts  not  being  as  desired  or  required,  does  not  necessarily  mean 
that  the  skin  of  the  body  is  not  right.  There  are  numerous  diseases  and  some  conditions 
which  affect  the  exposed  skin,  but  may  not  extend  further.  The  bleaching  of  the  skin  of  the 
legs  and  feet  of  fowls  which  run  on  very  dry  earth  or  ashes  may  be  quite  marked,  yet  the  skin 
of  the  body  be  of  good  color.  Dust  and  dirt  may  disfigure  the  comb  of  the  fowl  so  much  as 
to  give  it  a  faded  or  unhealthy  looking  color,  yet  the  protected  skin  show  no  such  effects.  The 
texture  of  the  skin  of  the  legs  is  of  great  importance  in  the  matter  of  resisting  disease  and 
conditions  Injurious  to  the  skin.  Fine  grained,  firm  skin  and  scales  resist  to  a  remarkable 
degree  the  action  of  soils,  ashes,  etc.,  and  also  of  the  insects  which  cause  the  loathsome  disease 
knbwn  as  scaly  leg. 

In  general  it  will  be  noted  that  a  fine  soft  oily  skin  is  associated  with  fine  quality,  firmness, 
and  glossiness  In  the  plumage.  These  conditions  or  characteristics  are  to  some  degree  depend- 
ent upon  the  constitution  and  general  health  and  condition  of  the  fowl,  but  it  seems  quite  clear 
also  that  this  quality  contributes  much  to  the  health  and  good  condition  of  the  fowl.  It  may 
be  a  question  of  opinion  which  is  the  cause  and  which  the  effect  in  such  matters,  but  the  value 
of  the  external  characteristics  and  their  meaning  are  apparent. 

In  most  American  markets  the  demand  is  for  poultry  with  yellow  skin  and  legs.  In  this 
respect  the  color  has  an  actual  cash  value  for  table  purposes,  just  as  color  of  plumage  has  for 
exhibition.  Of  course  in  the  consideration  of  single  specimens,  the  value  of  color  of  plumage 
may  be  represented  by  many  dollars,  while  color  of  the  skin  of  a  table  fowl  increases  its  selling 
value  only  a  few  cents,  but  the  demand  for  yellow  skin  in  table  poultry  is  general  and  insistent, 
while  preferences  for  colors  of  plumage  are  various  and  changeable. 

In  Conclusion. 

We  have  seen  as  we  have  discussed  these  various  characteristics  that  in  the  majority  of 
instances  where  a  character  has  special  value,  it  is  because  it  meets  an  artificial  demand.  This 
in  as  true  of  "practical"  as  of  "fancy"  points.  If  demands  change  we  change  our  fowls  or  our 
styles,  sizes  or  types  of  fowls  accordingly.  As  we  have,  even  with  the  most  careful  breedintr 
and  skillfu  1  growing,  considerable  variety  in  each  year's  product,  the  profitable  disposition  of 


124  LESSONS   IN   POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

it  depends  on  selecting  for  each  demand  to  which  one  caters  such  fowls  as  will  best  meet  that 
demand  find  would  not  meet  a  better  paying  demand.  Not  all  good  qualities  can  be  combined 
in  pqual  degree  In  the  same  fowl,  but  by  proper  selection  of  breeding  stock  year  by  year  a 
fcrerder  can  have  stock  in  which  he  combines  with  good  market  and  laying  qualities  the  possi- 
bility of  great  excellence  from  a  fancier's  standpoint.  If  he  does  this  he  has  always  three 
classes  of  prospective 'customers — fanciers,  farmers,  and  poultrymen  who  wish  fowls  which 
they  are  not  ashamed  to  have  those  who  know  good  fowls  see,  which  will  at  the  same  time  give 
a  good  account  of  themselves  at  the  nests  and  on  the  table.  All  these  can  be  supplied  from  the 
same  flock,  if  the  needs  of  the  two  extreme  classes  are  always  jointly  considered  In  breeding. 
If  either  is  neglected  the  stock  is  quickly  brought  to  the  point  where  only  one  class  can  be  satis- 
factorily supplied.  No  matter  which  class  this  is  the  possibilities  of  immediate  profit,  and 
what  is  more  iuiportHnt,  the  opportunity  to  extend  one's  business  are  greatly  curtailed. 

Breeders  should  diMinguish  between  essential  and  non-esscutlal  points,  work  for  every  point 
essential  to  any  profitable  demand,  and  despise  no  non-essential  because  it  is  immaterial  to 
them  personally. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOLLOW  U5AGL,  NOT  SY5TLM.  125 


LESSON      XIV. 


Poultry  Nomenclature  and    Abbreviations. 


BEGINNERS  in  poultry  keeping,  interested  —  us  many  are  —  in  everything  pertaining  to- 
poultry  culture,  and  regarding  every  breed  they  hear  of  as  a  possible  favorite,  are  often 
puzzled  by  the  use  in  poultry  literature  of  abbreviations  of  names  of  varieties.  The 
habit  of  abbreviation  is  so  universal  that  poultrymen  need  make  no  apologies  for  it. 
At  the  same  time,  there  are  so  many  varieties  of  poultry,  and  so  many  varieties  and  sub-varie- 
ties have  names  that  to  one  who  has  an  idea  of  the  breed  constitute  a  very  good  description  of 
them,  that  it  is  worth  while  for  a  novice  to  inform  himself  in  regard  to  the  abbreviations  used. 
As  nearly  everywhere,  abbreviations  of  poultry  names  are  not  made  to  follow  one  consistent 
system.  The  method  of  giving  names,  while  to  a  considerable  degree  systematic,  is  not  wholly 
so.  What,  considering  other  varieties  and  names  should  be  the  name  of  a  variety,  is  not 
always  the  name  given  it.  An  abbreviation  of  a  part  of  the  name  of  a  variety  commonly  used 
for  it,  and  equally  applicable  to  the  name  of  a  second  variety,  may  never  be  used  in  the  name 
of  the  second.  Hence  in  making  abbreviations  one  must  consider  what  is  common  usage  much 
more  than  what  would  be  logically  correct.  This  is  a  point  the  reader  who  occasionally  writes 
either  to  give  or  to  ask  information  about  fowls,  should  keep  in  mind.  An  abbreviation  may 
be  admissible,  but  if  people  are  not  in  the  habit  of  using  it  many  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  be 
sure  they  know  just  what  is  meant,  and  sometimes  those  who  do  try  to  make  sure  of  what  is 
said  have  difficulty  in  doing  so.  Indeed  the  use  of  abbreviations  by  those  not  familiar  with 
most  of  the  abbreviations  of  names  in  common  use  often  use  an  abbreviation  which  does  not 
clearly  distinguish  the  fowls  to  which  they  apply  it  because  equally  applicable  to  another 
variety.  The  most  troublesome  cases  of  this  kind  are  where  an  abbreviation  in  common  use 
for  years  is  made  ambiguous  by  the  advent  of  a  new  variety  having  a  name  with  the  same 
initial.  The  boom  in  buff  varieties  caused  more  trouble  in  that  way  th:m  any  other  recent 
occurrence. 

In  Plymouth  Rocks  we  have  three  varieties  —  Burred,  White,  and  Buff.  The  original  Piy- 
mouth  Rock  was  the  Barred  variety,  and  for  a  long  time  Plymouth  Hock  meant  nothing  but 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock.  Even  now  the  club  devoted  to  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  is  "  The 
American  Plymouth  Rock  Club."  With  the  introduction  of  the  White  variety  it  became 
necessary  in  speaking  of  Plymouth  Rocks  to  differentiate.  Even  before  this  it  had  been  com- 
mon to  speak  of  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  simply  as  Rocks.  Now  in  addition  to  the  abbrevi- 
ations B.  P.  Rock  and  W.  P.  Rock,  we  had  B.  Rock  and  W.  Rock  for  Barred  Rock  and  White 
Rock.  Occasionally  someone  would  use  the  term  Barred  Plymouth  or  White  Plymouth,  but 
such  usage  was  rare.  With  the  coming  of  the  Buff  Plymouth  Rock  an  element  of  doubt  was 
introduced  into  the  use  of  the  initial  B.  as  an  abbreviation  for  names  of  varieties  of  Plymouth 
Rocks.  B.  might  stand  for  either  Barred  or  Buff.  Though  more  than  ten  years  have  pass-eel 
since  then  the  plain  B.  is  still  often  used,  especially  in  connection  with  the  Barred  variety. 
Some  poultrymen  and  writers  make  a  point  of  doing  this  on  the  ground  that  the  Barred  had 
preempted  the  use  of  that  abbreviation.  Enough,  however,  will  not  look  at  it  that  way  to 
make  it  generally  uncertain  what  is  meant  by  a  B.  Rock,  or  B.  P.  Rock.  I  have  sometimes 


126  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  5LCOND  5LRIL5. 

used  Br.  for  Barred  and  Bf.  for  Buff —  a  usage  which  looks  all  right  when  only  Rocks  are  con- 
sidered, but  as  Br.  is  becoming  somewhat  generally  used  for  Brown  Leghorns  and  for  the 
word  Brown  when  occurring  in  the  name  of  a  variety  of  Games  or  Game  Bantams,  Bd.  for 
Barred  would  be  preferable. 

The  breed  Dame  Wyandottes  is  very  commonly  shortened  to  'Dottes,  and  abbreviated  to 
"Wy."  The  original  Wyandottes  were  the  Silvers,  —  a  laced  variety.  In  the  American 
•"Standard  of  Perfection"  they  are  still  called  Silver  Wyandottes,  and  the  abbreviations  S.  for 
Silver,  and  S.  Wy.  for  Silver  Wyandotte  are  common.  Since  there  has  been  also  a  Silver 
Penciled  Wyandotte,  there  has  been  an  increasingly  general  use  of  the  more  complete  descrip- 
tive name  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte,  abbreviated  sometimes  to  S.  L.  Wyandotte,  or  S.  L.  Wy. 
For  the  Golden  Laced  variety  the  abbreviations  have  been  the  same  with  the  substitution  of 
G.  for  S.  For  Whites  the  initial  W.  with  the  abbreviation  Wy.,  is  very  common.  Buff  and 
Black  having  the  same  initial,  the  abbreviations  may  be  Bf.  and  Bl.,  though  there  is  no  estab- 
lished usage.  Partridge  Wyandottes  are  properly  described  as  Golden  Penciled  Wyandottes, 
though  the  other  is  the  "official"  name  of  the  breed.  Partridge  may  be  abbreviated  to  P.  or  to 
Part.,  which  is  more  suggestive,  but  I  think  you  will  find  the  name  used  in  full  many  times 
oftener  than  you  will  find  it  abbreviated.  Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte  may  be  abbreviated  to  S. 
P.  Wy.,  or  Wyandotte.  It  is  quite  common  to  call  them  especially  Penciled  Wyandottes,  but 
that  leads  already  to  the  habit  of  speaking  also  of  the  Partridge  as  Penciled  Wyandottes,  and  I 
frequently  get  communications  speaking  of  Penciled  Wyandottes,  which  leave  me  in  doubt  as 
to  which  is  meant.  For  Columbian  Wyandotte  Col.  Wy.,  or  Wyandotte,  seems  right,  and  is 
occasionally  used,  though  Columbian  without  the  breed  name  seems  to  gain  favor. 

For  Javas  and  Dominiques  no  abbreviations  are  in  use.  Rhode  Island  Red  is  commonly 
shortened  to  R.  I.  Red,  or  simple  Red.  The  two  varieties  being  distinguished  by  the  shapes  of 
the  comb,  as  Single  Combed  or  Rose  Combed,  it  is  common  to  abbreviate  either  to  S.  C.  R.  I. 
Red,  and  R.  C.  R.  I.  Red,  or  still  further  to  S.  C.  Red,  and  R.  C.  Red. 

The  varieties  of  Brahmas  —  Light  and  Dark  —  have  variety  names  which  indicate  their 
colors  as  compared  with  each  other.  These  descriptive  terms  are  abbreviated  sometimes  to  Lt. 
or  L.  for  Light,  and  Dk.  or  D.  for  Dark,  but  the  abbreviations  are  not  as  much  used  as  the 
full  names. 

In  Cochins  we  have  the  varieties  Buff,  Black,  White,  and  Partridge.  W.  Cochin,  and  P. 
•Cochin,  for  the  two  latter  cannot  be  misunderstood,  but  to  be  sure  of  the  others  we  must  add  a 
letter  to  the  B. 

Laugshans  have  but  two  varieties  —  Black  and  W^hite,  the  names  often  abbreviated  to  B. 
Langshan,  and  W.  Langshan. 

In  Leghorn  names,  the  Brown  for  years  was  given  a  monopoly  of  the  use  of  the  initial  B., 
though  the  Black  might  claim  it,  and  there  was  little  if  any  trouble,  because  Browns  were 
common  and  Blacks  very  rare.  I  suppose  there  are  in  this  country  today  several  thousand 
persons  who  have  Brown  Leghorns  to  every  one  who  has  Blacks.  But  when  the  Buffs  came 
with  some  promise  of  popularity,  it  had  to  be  Br.  and  Bf.,  or  else  use  the  words  unabbreviated 
—  which  has  perhaps  been  the  more  common  practice.  The  Browns,  Whites,  and  Buffs  being 
subdivided  according  to  the  shape  of  the  comb,  we  have  the  abbreviations  S.  C.  and  R.  C., 
which  were  explained  above  in  connection  with  the  R.  I.  Red.  Jn  all  of  these  varieties  when 
there  is  no  reference  to  the  comb  the  Single  Combed  variety  is  usually  meant.  Silver  Duck- 
wing  is  abbreviated  to  S.  D. 

The  two  Single  Combed  varieties  of  the  Minorca  are  the  Black  and  White,  and  the  usual 
abbreviations  for  these  color  names  used  without  reference  to  the  shape  of  comb  will  almost 
always  mean  the  S.  C.  Minorcas.  In  writing  of  the  R.  C.  varieties  of  the  same  colors  the 
abbreviations  of  the  full  name  should  always  be  used. 

For  the  Spanish,  the  full  descriptive  name  (or  its  abbreviation)  of  White  Faced  Black 
Spanish  is  very  generally  used,  though  there  is  no  possibility  of  error  in  speaking  of  Spanish, 
there  being  only  the  one  variety.  For  Andalusians  and  Anconas  we  have  no  abbreviations. 

For  Dorkings  the  Silver  Gray  is  quite  generally  abbreviated  to  Silver  Dorkings,  Gray  Dork- 
ings, or  S.  G.  Dorkings,  but  the  White  Dorkings  and  the  Colored  Dorkings  names  are  not  often 
.abbreviated.  For  Redcap  no  abbreviation  is  used. 


POULTRY  NOMENCLATURE.  AND  ABBREVIATIONS.  127 

For  the  Orpington  variety  names  we  have  the  usual  abbreviations  for  the  colors  of  the  varie- 
ties, White,  Black,  and  Buff,  —  and  for  the  subdivisions  of  these  according  to  shape  of  comb. 
Spangled  and  Jubilee  Orpington  are  not  abbreviated. 

Of  the  Polish,  the  White  Crested  Black  is  the  only  name  generally  abbreviated.  This  is 
reduced  to  W.  C.  B.  PoMsh.  There  is  a  Buff  Laced  Polish,  and  there  are  both  Bearded  and 
Non-Bearded  divisions  of  the  Golden,  Silver,  and  White  varieties,  but  these  names,  perhaps 
because  of  the  infrequency  of  occasion  for  using  them,  are  usually  written  in  full. 

For  Hamburgs,  the  names  White  and  Black,  are  but  rarely  abbreviated;  the  names  Golden 
Spangled,  Silver  Spangled,  Golden  Penciled,  and  Silver  Penciled,  are  quite  generally  reduced 
to  the  initials  giving  G.  S.,  S.  S.,  G.  P.,  and  S.  P.  Hamburgs. 

No  shortening  or  abbreviation  of  any  kind  obtains  in  our  use  of  the  names  of  the  French 
breeds  —  Houdans,  Creveca'urs,  and  La  Fleche. 

Abbreviations  of  names  of  Game  and  Game  Bantam  varieties  cause  most  inquiry.  A  B.  B. 
R.  G.  Bant,  is  a  Black  Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam.  Omit  the  Bant.,  and  you  have  the  abbrevia- 
tion for  Black  Breasted  Red  Game.  In  both  the  large  and  the  small  fowls  there  is  also  a  Brown 
Breasted  Red,  known  as  a  Brown  Red.  The  other  is  sometimes  called  simply  a  Black  Red. 
As  far  as  proper  discrimination  in  abbreviation  of  these  names  is  used,  the  usual  way  is  to 
\vrite  B.  B.  R.  for  the  Black  Breasted  Red,  and  B.  R.  for  the  Brown  Red.  Golden  and  Silver 
Duckwing  Games  ami  Game  Bantam  are  abbreviated  to  G.  D.  and  S.  D.,  etc.  For  Birchen, 
Black,  and  White,  abbreviations  are  seldom  used.  Red  Pyle  is  abbreviated  to  R.  P. 

In  the  "Standard  of  Perfection"  the  word  Game  is  dropped  from  the  names  of  Cornish 
Indian  and  White  Indian  Games,  and  they  are  known  simply  as  Indians,  Cornish,  and  White. 

The  precedent  seems  to  have  found  little  favor,  and  the  old  usage  quite  generally  continues 
with  the  abbreviations  C.  I.  Games  and  W.  I.  Games.  For  Malays  and  Sumatras  no  abbrevia- 
tions are  used. 

Golden  Sebright  and  Silver  Sebright  Bantams  may  be  abbreviated  either  as  to  one  or  both 
descriptive  names.  Rose  Comb  Bantams  are  of  two  colors— Black,  and  White.  It  is  customary 
to  use  the  abbreviation  R.  C.  (there  is  no  S.  C.  variety  of  the  breed),  but  not  to  abbreviate  the 
color  term.  In  fact,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  it  written  R.  C.  Blacks,  or  R.  C.  Whites,  with 
particular  reference  to  their  being  Bantams.  For  Booted  White  Bantams  no  abbreviation  is 
commonly  used,  except  that  as  in  all  varieties  of  Bantams  it  is  quite  customary  in  writing  the 
name  to  shorten  Bantam  to  Bant.,  even  when  the  rest  of  the  name  is  written  in  full.  With 
those  who  abbreviate  intelligently  it  may  be  said  to  be  the  rule — perhaps  not  specifically  framed 
in  the  mind,  yet  still  generally  observed  in  practice  to  abbreviate,  to  cut  short,  as  soon  as  the 
meaning  is  clear.  In  names  of  Brahma,  Cochin,  and  the  three  varieties  of  Polish  Bantams,  we 
have  the  same  sets  of  abbreviations  as  for  the  larger  varieties  of  the  same  name,  always,  of 
course,  with  the  name  Bantam  or  its  abbreviation  added. 

Of  Japanese  Bantams  there  are  three  standard  varieties,  —  Black  Tailed,  White,  and  Black. 
The  first  of  these  is  more  fully  and  correctly  described  as  a  Black  Tailed  White  Japanese 
Bantam.  This  gives  us  a  very  long  name  —  for  a  very  small  fowl.  It  may  be  abbreviated  to 
W.  T.  W.  Jap.  Bant.  The  other  two  varieties  are  in  the  same  way  made  W.  Jap.  Bant.,  and 
B.  Jap.  Bant.  The  non-Standard  Gray  Japanese  Bantam  must  be  Gray  Jap.  Bant.,  for  G. 
generally  stands  for  Golden,  and  would  be  misleading. 

Names  of  Silkies,  Sultans,  and  Frizzles  are  not  abbreviated,  nor  is  it  common  to  abbreviate 
name**  of  either  turkeys,  ducks,  or  geese,  though  abbreviations  of  a  few  of  them  are  admissible. 
On  the  contrary,  it  is  more  customary  in  some  cases  to  use  more  words  than  is  necessary.  Thus 
a  Pekin  Duck  is  sufficiently  described  by  that  term,  for  there  is  only  one  varjety,  the  White, 
but  it  is  very  common  both  in  speaking  and  writing  to  say  White  Pekin  Duck. 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  the  turkey  take  their  names  from  the  color.  There  are  Bronze,  Buff, 
Slate,  White,  and  Black.  Then  there  is  the  Narragansett,  which  might  be  described  as  a 
bronze-gray  in  color.  The  White  Turkey  described  in  the  Standard  is  called  the  White  Hol- 
land Turkey?  White  Turkeys  called  Mammoth  (a  name  also  sometimes  applied  to  the  Bronze), 
have  also  been  shown.  Finally,  there  is  the  Bourbon  Red  Turkey  which  is  perhaps  best 
described  as  a  Buff  with  the  constituent  colors  unmixed,  and  tending  to  go  each  to  certain  sec- 
tions instead  of  being  evenly  distributed. 


128  LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  — SECOND  SERIES. 

The  Pekiu  Duck  takes  its  name  from  the  port  of  Pekin,  China.  The  Aylesbury,  also  a  White 
Duck,  from  the  district  of  England  where  it  is  most  extensively  grown.  The  ''Standard"  gives 
Rouen  Ducks  as  of  one  variety,  "Colored,"  but  I  do  not  remember  ever  having  heard  or  seen 
the  expression  Colored  Rouen  Duck.  The  Cayuga  Duck  is  Black,  and  it  is  quite  usual  to  use 
the  full  descriptive  title,  Black  Cayuga  Duck.  East  India  Ducks  also  are  generally  mentioned 
as  Black  East  India  Ducks.  The  Call  Ducks,  White  and  Gray,  generally  get  their  full  titles. 
Muscovy  Ducks,  too,  are  fully  described  as  Colored  or  White.  The  term  "Colored,"  when 
applied  to  the  name  of  a  breed  of  poultry  is,  as  is  very  evident,  used  as  the  readiest  term  to 
differentiate  the  variety  to  which  it  is  applied  from  others  which  get  a  more  specific  description. 
Hence  it  may  be  observed  that  in  the  making  as  well  as  the  using  of  names  we  may  find 
evidences  of  easy  going  tendencies.  A  Colored  Muscovy  Duck  is  black  and  white.  A  Colored 
Dorking  is  a  Dorking  that  Is  not  white  nor  yet  silver  gray,  but  runs  rather  to  shades  of  red  or 
brown.  A  Colored  Rouen  Duck  best  deserves  the  term,  for  in  the  male,  especially,  there  is  a 
profusion  of  colors.  The  Crested  White  Duck  is  just  a  plain  white  duck  with  a  top-knot.  The 
Indian  Runner  Duck  has  a  sort  of  hybrid  name.  It  is  not  an  Indian  Duck,  but  according  to 
best  authorities,  a  Belgian  production,  and  properly  named  and  described  as  a  simple  Runner 
Duck,  the  name  coming  from  Its  active  habit.  The  Blue  Swedish  Duck  takes  its  name  from  its 
color  and  from  the  country  of  its  supposed  origin. 

Names  of  geese  are  seldom,  if  ever,  abbreviated.  The  breed  name  may  be  used  alone  or  with 
the  color  more  specifically  describing  it.  Toulouse*  and  Embden  Geese  are  quite  frequently 
mentioned  as  Gray  Toulouse  and  White  Embden  Geese,  thus  describing  them  more  fully, 
though  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  this  to  fix  their  identity.  African  Geese,  described  in  the 
Standard  as  "Gray,"  are  not  at  all  such  a  gray  as  the  Toulouse,  but  rather  on  the  brown  order. 
The  Chinese  Geese  are  the  only  breed  having  two  varieties.  These  are  Brown  and  White.  It 
is  quite  common  to  call  them  China  geese,  instead  of  Chinese.  The  Wild  Goose  is  also  known 
as  the  Canada  or  Canadian  Goose,  and  frequently  given  both  titles,  Wild  Canada  Goose. 


LGGS    A    NE.CL55ARY    OF    LIFL.  129 


LE55ON      XV. 


Eggs     and     Egg     Production. 


IX  this  lesson  we  consider  the  egg  and   the  subject  of  egg  production   from  the  "business** 
point  of  view,  aud  lor  the  common  people  not  versed  in- any  of  the  "ologiei*"  into  which 
the  study  of  the  egg  in  most  littingly  introduced,  or  which  may  lie  applied  most  interot- 
ingly  to  the  examination  of  the  egg  and  the  problems  of  egg  production. 
The  egg  owes  its  great  commercial  importance  first  of  all  to  its  food  value.     In  it  we  have 
combined  as  in  few  other  simple  food  articles  the  qualities  of  delicacy  and  substantial  nourish- 
ing quality.    Eggs  alone  constitute  an  important  article  of  diet.    But  in  the  average  family  or 
hostelry  their  use  as  a  separate  article  of  diet  is  second  in  importance  to  their  use  as  an  ingredi- 
ent in  an  almost  endless  variety  of  dishes.    Except  in  the  homes  of  the  well  to  do  the  use  of 
the  egg  as  a  separate  article  of  diet  depends  largely  on  the  relative  prices  of  eggs  and  meat,  the 
general  tendency  being  to  use  eggs  freely  when  they  are  cheaper  thau  the  popular  cuts  of  meat, 
and  to  l>e  economical  in  their  use  when  the  meats  are  cheaper. 

The  matter  of  cost  also  enters  into  the  question  of  the  free  or  economical  use  of  fggs  in  cook- 
ing, though  not  to  the  same  extent,  for  so  many  are  the  common  dishes  requiring  eggs  for  their 
preparation  that  it  is  impossible  for  most  housewives  to  make  any  considerable! eduction  in  tde 
quantity  of  eggs  used  in  that  way  without  entirely  changing  the  ordinary  bill  of  fare. 

As  lack  of  freshness  and  flavor  are  less  noticeable  in  eggs  when  mixed  with  other  articles,  it 
becomes  possible,  and  is  customary  to  use  as  "cooking  eggs"  eggs  which  served  separately  to> 
most  people  would  be  rather  unpalatable.  Indeed  it  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  among; 
poultrymen  that  the  infertile  eggs  from  an  incubator,  tested  out  the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  mid 
ready  sale  to  bakers  —  and  possibly  also  to  go  into  channels  of  more  particular  trade.  Eggs, 
preserved  by  various  processes  or  kept  in  cold  storage,  and  "held"  eggs,  that  is,  eggs  kept, 
without  preservatives  by  the  producers  for  weeks  or  even  months  in  anticipation  of  rising; 
prices,  are  also  salable  as  "cooking"  eggs.  Of  course  these  inferior  eggs  from  various  sources 
are  not  as  good  even  for  cooking  as  nice,  fresh  eggs,  but  so  many  people  are  satisfied  to  use 
them  when  the  prices  of  fresh  eggs  are  very  high,  that  almost  any  kind  of  an  egg  that  is  not 
actually  bad  will  sell  readily  for  cooking  purposes. 

c* 

Evri:*  sell  according  to  their  quality  as  they  reach  the  buyer.  This  is  true  as  a  general  proposi- 
tion —  though  some  exceptions  and  seeming  exceptions  to  the  rule  may  be  found.  If  they 
reach  the  buyer  in  as  good  condition  as  they  left  the  producer  there  is  no  occasion  for  differ- 
ences of  opinion  as  to  quality  and  value,  but  it  is  only  when  they  go  direct  from  producer  to 
consumer  that  this  is,  generally  speaking,  possible.  Most  producers  of  eggs  must  send  tlieir 
goods  to  the  consumer  through  channels  of  trade  which  require  several  transfers,  more  or  le>* 
delay,  and  sometimes  exposure  to  deteriorating  influences.  Sometimes  the  producer  can  exert, 
some  degree  of  control  over  the  vicissitudes  to  which  the  egg  in  transit  is  subjected  by  investi- 
gating the  course  his  goods  take  after  leaving  him,  and  selling  to  the  middlemen  who  get  then* 
into  consumption  by  the  most  direct  route  and  with  the  least  possible  delay.  It  might  be  sup- 
posed that  as  a  matter  of  business  every  dealer  in  produce  would  do  that,  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact  there  is  a  great  deal  of  slackness  in  the  handling  of  eggs,  much  more  than  in  the  handling 
of  poultry,  which  more  quickly  shows  deterioration  whether  alive  or  dead. 


OO  LL5SON5   IN    POULTRY   KLEPING  —  5E.COND  5LRILS. 

However,  the  producer's  control  of  bis  egirs  after  their  delivery  to  the  first  buyer  or  trans- 
portatiou  company  practically  ceases  as  far  as  personal  ability  to  protect  their  quality  is  con- 
cerned. Every  producer  of  eggs  can  be  very  sure  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  his  eggs  ever 
becoming  better  in  quality  than  they  were  when  produced.  Age  does  not  improve  them  to  the 
normal  taste,  nor  will  any  process  of  "ripening"  render  them  more  palatable.  No  tricks  of 
manipulation  will  improve  their  appearance.  The  shipper  of  poultry  may  find  the  skill  of  the 
-salesman  who  wipes,  and  shapes  and  makes  more  presentable  the  carcasses  of  the  fowls,  of 
benefit  to  him,  making  the  fowls  show  often  to  better  advantage  than  originally.  But  dirty 
eggs  are  graded  as  "dirties,"  and  sold  at  an  appropriate  price.  Small  and  misshapen  eggs 
reduce  the  grade  of  their  entire  lot.  Weak  and  watery  eggs  are  readily  detected  by  dealers  and 
buyers.  Bad  flavored  eggs  in  a  line  of  good  trade  cannot  come  from  the  same  place  very  many 
times  in  succession  without  someone  in  the  line  being  called  to  account,  and  ultimately  it  comes 
back  to  the  culprit  among  the  producers. 

c* 

When  one  begins  to  give  special  attention  to  the  production  of  eggs,  be  must  work  for  quality 
^is  well  as  for  quantity,  otherwise  begets  but  a  p;trt  of  the  benefit  of  his  effort*.  Producing 
•*gg*  in  quantity  and  of  good  quality,  he  must  market  them  to  the  best  advantage.  If  lie  does 
aiot  he  may  be  no  better  off  than  he  was  in  the  first  place. 

Now  let  us  take  that  the  other  way  around.  Suppose  a  man  desirous  of  getting  a  better  price 
ior  his  eggs  begins  to  study  the  ways  of  the  markets,  and  finds  that  his  eggs  compete  not  with 
the  best,  but  in  the  grade  of  cooking  eggs.  It  is  not  impossible  that  there  is  discrimination  or 
misrepresentation  on  the  part  of  those  handling  the  eggs,  but  it  is  far  more  likely  that  the  rggs 
jiever  were  of  the  quality  that  they  should  be  to  command  the  best  prices.  This  is  especially 
the  case  with  eggs  from  fowls  for  which  most  of  the  food  is  purchased,  eggs  from  yarded  fowls 
and  eggs  from  fowls  whose  ration  is  too  carefully  balanced.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observa- 
tion and  frequent  comment  among  eastern  handlers  of  eggs  that  the  western  eggs  as  a  class  are 
superior  in  original  quality  to  the  eastern  or  nearby  eggs.  They  are  richer  in  color  of  yolk  and 
In  substance  of  white.  At  seasons  when  there  is  little  deterioration  in  transit  these  western 
«eggs  may  come  into  our  eastern  cities  actually  better  than  the  nearby  product,  but  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  time  and  exposure  in  transit  operate  to  take  away  their  freshness  and 

£wvor. 

Now,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  easier  for  the  producer  to  control  original  quality  than  to  provide 
*<rainst  a  quick  deterioration  after  the  eggs  leave  his  bands.  Hence  it  should  be  apparent  to 
the  eastern  producer  that  it  is  much  easier  for  him  to  get  good  quality  in  his  eggs  than  it  is  for 
the  western  producer  to  provide  for  the  preservation  of  quality  in  his.  There  is  really  no 
«xcuse  —  but  that  of  mistaken  economy  —  for  the  producer  near  a  good  market  not  getting 
«very  advantage  of  price  which  excellence  of  product  and  nearness  of  markets  combined  should 
give  him.  Yet  many  producers  do  not  get  them.  Why  not? 
Here  are  the  principal  reasons: 

Debilitated  stock. 

Lack  of  variety  in  food  and  insufficient  supplies  of  green  foods  and  fats. 

Excessive  feeding  of  swill  and  other  wastes. 

Mistaken  ideas  of  the  food  constituents  required  for  egg  production. 

c* 

It  takes  healthy  hens  to  produce  eggs  of  first  rate  quality  and  fine  appearance.  Compare  the 
«g^8  of  individual  hens  in  a  flock,  or  better  select  certain  eggs  and  then  find  and  compare  the 
lien-tthat  lay  them.  Your  flock  and  their  eggs  may  be  too  uniform  in  condition  and  appear- 
ance to  make  the  comparison  I  suggest  remarkable,  but  the  average  flock  is  not  so.  I  succeed 
an  having  mine  that  way  only  in  proportion  as  I  limit  my  breeding  to  individuals  carefully 
selected  from  stock  bred  in  my  own  yards  for  generations.  I  find  that  when  I  go  outside  for 
new  blood  to  improve  some  point  in  which  I  wish  to  make  improvement,  my  most  careful  mix- 
ture of  the  new  blood  introduces  a  variety  into  the  appearance  and  to  some  extent  into  the 
quality  of  the  eggs  which  was  absent  during  the  yeaf*s  of  close  breeding.  I  find  also  that  the 
Sack  of  quality  in  eggs  is  coincident  with  a  lack  of  vitality  in  the  individuals  producing  them. 
It  has  sometimes  happened,  too,  that  in  fertility  my  best  layers  and  most  vigorous  birds  were 


RELATION    OF    FOOD    TO    QUALITY    OF    LGG5.  131 

inferior  to  some  of  the  others,  and  so  I  have  sometimes  bad  a  larger  proportion  than  desirable 
of  laving  hens  from  the  weaker  stock,  and  in  such  cases  I  have  found  the  eggs  averaging  lower 
both  in  appearance  and  quality  than  when  I  succeeded  in  getting  what  pullets  I  wanted  from 
my  most  vigorous  birds.  One  can  make  more  careful  comparisons  in  matters  like  this  in  his 
own  stock,  but  it  is  possible  to  see  the  facts  in  observations  of  the  stocks  of  others.  It  is  as 
unreasonable  to  expect  first  class  quality  in  eggs  from  hens  in  poor  condition  as  to  expect  good 
fruit  from  an  unhealthy  plant.  A  laying  hen  should  be  in  good  condition,  with  smooth,  healthy 
looking  skin  and  firm  flesh.  Some  fat  is  desirable.  Fat  hens  generally  will  lay  richer  eggs.  A 
distinction  should  be  made  between  fat  and  excessive  fat,  between  healthy  fat  on  an  active  fowl 
and  tlie  dead  weight  of  fat  an  unhealthy  fowl  may  carry. 


What  is  variety  ?  To  different  persons  it  means  different  things.  A  farmer  may  say  that  his 
cow  gives  so  much  milk  or  makes  so  much  butter  on  grass.  That  may  mean  a  considerable 
variety,  though  the  one  term  grass  covers  it  all.  It  is  said  that  there  are  often  as  many  as  forty 
varieties  of  grass  on  an  old  pasture.  Such  a  fact  as  this  should  be  taken  into  account  in  con- 
sidering the  diet  of  hens  on  good  grass  range.  On  a  western  farm  they  may  be  fed  nothing  but 
corn,  but  they  get  also  all  the  various  kinds  of  grass  which  the  pasture  provides,  many  suc- 
culent weeds  besides,  and  an  almost  endless  variety  of  seeds  of  weeds  and  grasses,  in  addition 
to  such  waste  grain  other  than  corn  as  the  farm  may  afford,  and  worms  and  bugs  in  great 
profusion.  Compare  such  variety  at  this  with  the  usual  variety  given  hens  kept  in  confinement, 
and  it  is  easy  to  see  where  the  greater  variety  is,  and  how  meager  by  comparison  is  the  variety 
afforded  in  a  balanced  ration  containing  even  a  dozen  articles. 

Where  hens  in  confinement  suffer  most  for  lack  of  variety  is  in  green  and  succulent  food. 
Variety  in  grains  is  more  readily  provided.  Grains  are  not  perishable,  and  supplies  can  be  kept 
on  band.  But  the  dried  substitutes  for  green  foods,  while  excellent  as  far  as  they  go,  fall  far  short 
of  the  natural  provision  that  way.  Where  fowls  must  be  kept  in  confinement,  and  the  ground 
room  is  very  limited,  I  am  inclined  to  think  it  is  better  to  give  up  as  much  space  as  is  necessary 
to  the  growing  of  vegetables  especially  for  the  fowls,  even  though  by  doing  so  the  fowls  are 
confined  much  more  closely  than  desirable,  and  grow  a  variety  of  vegetables  for  them,  lettuce, 
cabbage,  rape,  anything  that  they  will  eat. 

J& 

The  lack  of  fats  in  the  ordinary  ration  results  from  overcaution  in  feeding  fowls.  To  this  is 
due  the  abhorrence  of  corn,  which  is  far  more  prevalent  in  the  east  than  it  should  be.  A  dealer 
in  eggs  in  Boston  who  is  also  proprietor  of  a  poultry  farm  has  told  me  repeatedly  that  he  bad 
had  many  shippers  whose  eggs  were  so  lacking  in  fats  that  they  would  not  sell  to  the  best  trade, 
who  had  remedied  the  trouble  by  feeding  corn.  Indeed,  he  said,  he  always  felt  so  sure  that  a 
shipper  whose  eggs  were  weak  did  not  feed  corn  that  he  was  in  the  habit  of  advising  such  to 
feed  corn.  Many  handlers  of  eggs  claim  that  they  can  readily  distinguish  between  the  eggs  of 
corn  fed  hens  and  of  hens  fed  wheat  and  oats  and  no  corn  by  the  appearance  and  consistency  of 
the  eggs  when  broken.  Fats  may  be  provided  in  other  ways,  but  corn  is  cheapest. 

The  excessive  feeding  of  swill  is  very  common  on  "egg  farms"  near  cities  and  towns  where 
large  quantities  of  swill  and  table  waste  can  be  bad  for  the  collecting,  and  there  is  generally  a 
disposition  to  feed  all  of  this  that  the  hens  can  possibly  be  made  to  eat,  and  as  little  as  possible 
of  anything  else.  Weak  and  watery  eggs  and  stock  debilitated  by  an  excess  of  soft  food  are 
common  results.  Much  of  the  refuse  food  thus  used  is  spoiled  before  being  collected,  and  often 
the  waste  contains  stuff  the  fowls  ought  not  to  have.  Table  waste  properly  saved  and  properly 
used  is  one  of  the  best  of  foods  for  poultry,  but  feeding  almost  wholly  on  such  food  makes 
neither  good  poultry  nor  good  eggs. 

It  is  a  common  idea  that  for  egg  production  "protein"  especially  is  required.  The  fact  is  that 
what  is  needed  in  much  larger  proportion  than  it  occurs  in  ordinary  food  articles  is  "fat." 
This  fact  explains  why  laying  hens  may  be  fed  so  freely  of  fattening  foods  and  not  only  not 
become  excessively  fat,  but  even  lose  fat,  sometimes.  In  this  connection  I  would  emphasize 
another  point  too  generally  unappreciated.  The  prevailing  idea  of  egg  production  is  that  eggs 
are  the  product  of  such  surplus  of  food  taken  into  the  body  as  a  hen  digests  and  assimilates, 


132  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  5LCOND  5LRIES. 

and  does  not  require  for  the  maintenance  of  other  functions.  This  is  a  sort  of  half  troth.  Food 
taken  in  excess  of  current  needs  of  the  body  for  maintenance  goes  to  eggs  in  one  ben,  to  fat  in 
another,  causes  digestive  disorders  in  another.  What  makes  the  difference? 

J* 

The  attempt  to  answer  that  question  brings  us  face  to  face  with  one  of  the  most  puzzling  of 
the  poultry  man's  problems  —  the  control  or  regulation  of  egg  production.  Novices  almost 
without  exception  suppose  that  expert  poultrymen  can  regulate  egg  production.  Experienced 
poultrymen  know  that  when  hens  have  started  laying  they  can  generally  keep  them  laying,  but 
that  to  assure  the  hens  starting  at  or  about  any  desired  time  is  beyond  their  power. 

Given  a  laying  hen,  and  the  volume  of  her  egg  production  does  depend  very  much  upon  the 
amount  of  food  that  she  can  use  in  excess  of  her  bodily  needs,  though  the  maintenance  require- 
ments do  not  always  take  precedence.  On  the  contrary  it  is  quite  a  common  thing  for  a  laying 
hen's  food  to  be  diverted  to  egg  production  at  the  expense  of  bodily  maintenance.  When  this 
continues  for  a  long  period  the  hen  is  greatly  weakened,  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  becoming 
emaciated  and  exhausted  beyond  recovery.  Such  cases,  however,  are  exceptional.  The  rule 
is  that  when  egg  production  has  appreciably  exhausted  a  hen  it  ceases,  and  for  a  period  longer 
or  shorter  accordihg  to  the  readiness  with  which  the  system  is  rebuilt  all  the  energy  of  the  fowl 
goes  to  restore  it  to  perfect  physical  condition. 

Generally  speaking,  it  is  correct  to  say  that  because  a  hen  is  laying  she  requires  and  takes 
food  in  excess  of  the  needs  of  her  body  for  maintenance  and  the  performance  of  other 
functions,  and  that  the  volume  of  her  product  depends  largely  upon  the  amount  of  such  surplus 
of  food  that  she  is  capable  of  digesting  and  converting  into  eggs;  but  it  is  not  correct  to  say  that 
furnishing  a  surplus  of  food  compels  egg  production  and  makes  the  hen  lay. 

What  difference  does  it  make  which  way  we  look  at  this  matter?  Ju&t  this  difference  :— Our 
way  of  looking  at  this  matter  is  likely  to  govern  our  efforts  to  "make  hens  lay."  If  we  believe 
that  a  surplus  of  the  right  kind  of  food  will  force  egg  production,  we,  very  logically,  devote 
ourselves  to  experiments  with  foods  until  we  tind  one  that  seems  to  answer  our  purpose.  If 
we  believe  that  the  activity  of  the  hen's  organs  of  reproduction  depends  upon  something  not  so 
directly  within  our  control  as  the  kind,  quality,  or  quantity  of  food  furnished  her,  we  are  more 
ready  to  settle  down  to  a  good  system,and  have  more  patience  in  waiting  for  results  when  they 
do  not  come  when  we  want  them.  It  is  conducive  both  to  peace  of  mind  and  to  continuing 
faith  in  a  good  method  to  know  that  egg  production  is  measurably  dependent  upon  causes  or 
conditions  beyond  our  control,  and  that  failure  to  have  hens  begin  laying  when  we  want  them 
to  does  not  necessarily  imply  anything  wrong  —  which  by  foresight  or  management  we  might 
have  avoided. 


50ML  EXHIBITION  LVIL5.  133 


LESSON      XVI. 


Some  Elementary    floral    Science  For    Exhibitors, 


THE  novice  in  exhibiting  fowls  find*,  when  he  ventures  into  the  show  room,  certain 
conflicts  between  the  rules  of  exhibitions,  as  he  reads  them,  and  some  common 
practices  of  exhibitors. 

Thus  the  rules  almost  invariably  say  that  specimens,  except  Games,  which  may 
have  the  combs  dubbed,  must  be  exhibited  in  their  natural  condition,  but  it  is  the  universal 
practice  among  exhibitors  to  improve  in  various  ways  on  the  "natural"  condition  and 
appearance  of  the  fowl.  As  to  the  legitimacy  or  illegitimacy  of  these  practices,  opinions  may 
differ.  All  grades  of  opinion  are  found,  from  severe  condemnation  of  even  the  most  harmless 
and  apparent  forms  of  "  grooming,"  to  apology  for  or  justification  of  practices  which  need 
only  to  be  described  to  be  recognized  as  wrong. 

It  is  in  the  list  of  practices  intermediate  between  these  extremes  that  the  things  are  found 
which  cause  the  most  concern  to  exhibitors  who  wish  at  the  same  time  to  be  hone>t  and  fair, 
and  to  take  advantage  of  every  permissible  method  of  improving  a  bird's  chances  of  winning. 

To  the  beginner  in  the  exhibition  room  some  of  the  practices  which  seem  to  the  older 
exhibitor  necessary  and  right  appear  to  be  of  a  very  heinous  nature.  As  he  becomes  more 
familiar  with  the  conditions  which  occasion  these  practices,  and  learns  to  know  the  men  he  at 
first  condemned  for  practicing  them,  he  is  very  likely  to  considerably  modify  his  views  about 
both  the  men  and  the  practices,  even  though  he  may  not  be  able  fully  to  approve  them,  or  to 
join  in  them  with. a  conscience  entirely  clear. 

In  this  lesson  1  have  no  purpose  or  wish  to  persuade  anyone  to  adopt  a  course  with  reference 
to  these  matters  which  he  cannot  justify  to  himself  and  his  own  conscience.  I  shall  merely 
present  certain  facts  in  the  relations  in  which  they  are  commonly  considered  by  experienced 
breeders  and  exhibitors,  with  the  arguments  by  which  the  practices  generally  regarded  as 
legitimate  are  justified,  indicate  the  common  attitude  with  regard  to  them,  and  occasionally 
give  a  personal  opinion  when  it  seems  appropriate. 

Some   of   the  Evils  of    Exhibitions. 

The  great  evils  in  poultry  exhibitions  as  they  discover  themselves  to  the  novice  are: — 

1. —  The  faking  of  birds;  that  is,  treating  them  in  some  matter  to  circumvent  a  rule  or 

gain  an  unfair  advantage  of  a  competitor. 
2. —  The  borrowing  of  birds  for  exhibition. 
3. —  The  collusion  of  exhibitors  and  judges. 

What   is    Faking? 

In  the  above  classification  of  show  room  evils  I  have  given  a  brief  and  comprehensive 
definition  of  a  common  term  which  means  many  different  things  to  many  different  people. 

Strictly  and  literally  interpreted,  the  rules,  as  promulgated  by  most  shows,  do  prohibit 
practices  which  it  may  be  said  are  followed  by  experienced  exhibitors  without  exception,  for 
it  would  be  utter  folly  for  an  exhibitor  competing  with  experienced  exhibitors  in  strong  com- 
petition not  to  do  these  things.  His  chances  of  winning  without  them  would  be  so  rare  that 


134  LLSSONS   IN   POULTRY   KLLPING  —  SECOND  SLRILS. 

it  would  l>e  foolish  for  him  to  enter  Ins  birds  ut  all.  Hence  we  may  assume  that  a  man  who 
continues  to  successfully  engage  in  strong  competition  in  shows  of  any  degree  of  Importance 
does  habitually  do  a  number  of  things  which  the  rules  of  the  show  say  he  shall  not  do.  On 
this  point  there  can  be  no  dispute.  The  facts  are  self  apparent  to  anyone  who  knows  the  con- 
ditions with  which  exhibitors  have  to  deal. 

Let  us  briefly  examine  these  conditions: 

To  the  visitor  at  a  poultry  exhibition,  to  the  public  at  large,  it  is  merely  an  exhibition,  a  dis- 
play of  fine  fowls.  For  the  exhibitors  the  poultry  show  consists  of  many  competitions  in  the 
results  of  skill  in  breeding  to  a  prescribed  set  of  ideals,  the  full  accomplishment  of  which,  in 
combination,  is  practically  impossible. 

In  some  respects  these  standard  requirements  are  absurd  :— as  when  a  fowl  is  disqualified  for 
a  defect  inconspicuous  until  the  fowl  is  subjected  to  a  very  close  examination,  or  so  obscure 
that  its  existence  may  not  be  positively  identified  without  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass.  Were 
these  requirements  part  of  a  consistent  system  they  might  be  treated  with  more  respect  by 
exhibitors,  but  as  the  application  of  the  same  standards  admits  with  trifling  punishment  and 
sometimes  even  wituout  punishment  blemishes  and  faults  conspicuous  as  far  as  any  quality  of 
the  fowl  could  be  distinguished,  the  more  fa'miliar  exhibitors  become  with  the  difficulties  of 
producing  fowls  free  from  faults  and  with  the  incongruities  in  standard  requirements  the  less 
evil  they  will  see  in  disregarding  or  breaking  rigid  requirements  about  trifles. 

Novices  in  the  breeding  of  fowls  rarely  appreciate  the  scarcity  of  specimens  which  even 
approximately  measure  up  to  an  educated  conception  of  the  requirements  of  the  standards  for 
their  variety.  The  erroneous  prevalent  idea  of  the  uniformity  of  thoroughbred  birds  and  the 
fixity  of  characters  in  them  is  responsible  for  the  common  misapprehensions  on  these  points  as 
it  is  for  many  other  difficulties  of  beginners. 

To  illustrate:— In  many  varieties  what  are  known  as  "foul"  feathers  (that  is,  feathers  not 
colored  or  marked  as  required)  are  likely  to  be  found  even  in  stock  that  has  been  most  carefully 
bred.  Indeed  specimens  on  which  an  expert  judge  who  made  a  thorough  search  for  them 
could  not  find  such  feathers  are  very  rare.  The  rule  which  requires  specimens  to  be 
exhibited  in  their  natural  condition  is  commonly  held  to  prohibit  the  removal  of  such  feathers. 
It  would  generally  be  affirmed  by  officers  of  associations  who  might  be  questioned  on  that 
point  that  the  intent  of  the  rule  was  to  prohibit  the  plucking  of  such  feathers. 

But  the  plucking  of  feathers  which  mar  the  appearance  of  the  fowl,  and  the  removal  of 
which  makes  no  visible  defect  or  lack  in  the  plumage  is  an  act  practically  impossible  of  detec- 
tion, after  the  job  is  done,  and  between  this  protection  from  consequences  and  the  general  feel- 
ing of  exhibitors  that  the  rule  is  unreasonable  it  has  come  about  that  exhibitors  almost  without 
exception  —  after  a  few  seasons  experience  —  pluck  all  the  feathers  that  shouW  be  removed  to 
make  the  bird  appear  at  its  best.  Hence  the  rule  is  practically  a  dead  letter  except  with 
novices  who  wish  to  strictly  observe  regulations  and  do  not  know  the  facts  in  regard  to  the 
common  neglect  of  the  rule,  and  do  not  appreciate  the  conditions  which  have  made  it  obsolete. 

While  the  facts  given  above  do  not  justify  a  violation  of  such  rules  by  those  who  consider 
such  violation  wrong,  they  do  explain  how  it  is  that  a  great  many  exhibitors  consider  the 
violation  of  such  rules  an  act  involving  no  special  moral  turpitude.  I  have  always  maintained 
that  such  rules  were  wrong,  because  they  could  not  possibly  be  enforced,  and  the  disregard  of 
unreasonable  rules,  while  perhaps  not  of  itself  deserving  severe  condemnation,  is  to  be 
deplored  because  of  its  effect  on  the  observance  of  reasonable  requirements.  From  this  point 
of  view  I  say  that  of  the  two  evils  the  rule  which  prohibits  fitting  of  this  kind  is  the  greater. 
The  constant  publication  of  such  a  rule  also  tends  to  confirm  the  prevailing  error  among 
beginners  as  to  the  possibility  of  producing  fowls  which  are  fit  for  exhibition  without  special 
attention  to  the  removal  of  superficial  faults.  They  naturally  argue  that  if  it  were  not  a 
reasonable  requirement  it  would  not  exist. 

To  show  that  such  disregard  of  rules  or  laws  is  not  peculiar  to  poultry  exhibitors,  and  has 
been,  and  is,  practiced  by  very  large  numbers  of  people  without  subjecting  them  to  condem- 
nation as  particularly  bad,  let  me  cite  the  general  disregard  in  this  country  of  laws  of  the 
kind  known  as  "  Blue  Laws,"  and  the  almost  universal  failure  of  people  subject  to  taxation  to 
return  lull  schedules  of  their  taxable  property.  If  the  reader  disposed  to  be  severe  on  poult  y 


THL    GRLATLR    LVILS.  135 

exhibitors  for  their  peculiar  disregards  of  regulations  will  consider  the  number  of  regulations 
of  all  kinds  which  are  practically  obsolete  so  far  as  observance  of  them  goes,  it  may  dis- 
pose him  to  be  more  lenient  in  his  judgment  of  them. 

To  me  the  evils  of  these  practices,  as  between  competitor?,  do  not  seem  to  be  of  as  mtichr 
importance  as  the  evils  which  may  follow  after  the  exhibition.  Every  exhibitor  understands 
— or  has  opportunity  to  know  and  understand  —  that  such  manipulat'ons  of  birds  as  plucking 
foul  feathers,  washing  white  birds  to  give  them  the  pearl  \vbitecolor  required,  coloring,  or 
strengthening  the  color  of  legs  and  toes,  etc.,  etc.,  are  generally  practiced,  and  knows  also  that 
the  results  of  competition  in  the  show  room  depend  as  much  on  the  ability  of  exhibitors  to 
condition  their  birds  and  fit  them  properly  as  upon  their  skill  in  breeding.  The  competition  m 
the  show  room  may,  therefore,  be  considered  one  In  which  all  meet  on  the  same  level,  it  being 
understood  that  each  competitor,  in  addition  to  exerting  his  utmost  skill  to  produce  fine  speci- 
mens, has  also  availed  himself  to  the  extent  of  his  ability  of  the  advantages  to  be  gained  by 
skillful  preparation;  it  also  being  generally  appreciated  that  birds  which  could  go  iuto  com- 
petition without  special  fitting,  with  any  hope  of  winning,  are  very  rare. 

Now,  if  with  this  general  understanding  the  competitors  meet,  prizes  are  awarded,  and  each- 
takes  his  birds  home,  we  cannot  readily  discover  that  any  particular  harm  has  been  done  to* 
anyone.  The  breeder  who  has  exhibited  birds  whose  faults  have  been  treated  knows  what 
these  faults  were,  and  therefore  can  make  an  intelligent  effort  to  eliminate  them  or  reduce- 
them  in  the  progeny  of  the  stock  in  the  next  generation.  But  suppose  he  sells  them  with  the 
assurance  to  the  customer  that  they  have  not  been  treated  in  any  way,  and  the  customerr 
relying  upon  his  positive  assurance,  buys  the  birds,  and  perhaps  in  his  ignorance  of  their  fault 
mates  them  in  just  the  way  that  will  reproduce  and  perhaps  exaggerate  them  in  the  offspring^ 
Here  we  have  a  case  which  the  consensus  of  opinion  among  poultrymen  does  not  excuse,  and 
while  there  are,  of  course,  no  data  covering  such  points,  I  think  it  is  a  fact  that  in  transactions- 
between  exhibitors  the  sellers  will,  with  few  exceptions,  inform  buyers  of  faults  of  this  class, 
I  have  known  many  instances  where,  without  stating  their  reason,  exhibitors  refused  to  self*, 
such  birds. 

Another  fact  not  generally  understood  by  novices  in  exhibitions  is  that  a  fowl,  having  none 
of  the  blood  of  a  variety,  or  perhaps  but  a  fraction  of  blood  of  that  variety,  may  to  all  out- 
ward appearances  be  a  fine  specimen  of  that  variety,  and  the  owner  of  such  a  fowl  mar 
exhibit  it  in  the  class  to  which,  in  appearance,  It  belongs  without  violating  any  rule  of  either 
the  Standard  or  the  association  giving  the  show  to  which  he  sends  the  bird.  The  judge  pro- 
nounces judgment  on  the  specimens  as  they  come  before  him.  Neither  he  nor  any  officer  of 
an  association  assumes  to  go  back  of  the  entries  in  considering  the  merits  of  a  fowl.  The 
Standard  calls  for  certain  peculiarities,  but  does  not  prescribe  how  they  shall  be  produced. 

1  do  not  think  it  misrepresents  the  general  attitude  of  poultrymen  to  say  that  they  would  see- 
no  special  wrong  doing  in  entering  such  a  specimen  for  competition,  but  would  consider  it 
wrong  for  the  owner  of  the  bird  to  sell  it  except  for  just  what  it  was.  The  distinction  they 
make  may  not  satisfy  every  requirement  of  a  rigid  moral  code,  but  measuring  the  extent  of  au 
evil  by  its  special  results  their  attitude  has  something  to  commend  it. 

In  a  general  way  the  extent  to  which  a  practice  prevails  affords  a  tolerably  accurate  measure 
of  the  degree  of  toleration  or  condemnation  which  the  general  opinion  of  the  community  or 
class  interested  assigns  it,  and  the  newcomer  in  a  community  and  the  novice  in  an  interest  alike 
need  to  be  slow  to  condemn  what  may  at  first  seem  to  them  very  serious  and  inexcusable  fault* 
commonly  practiced  by  persons  of  general  good  character,  for  on  further  acquaintance  with  the 
facts  it  may  develop  that  considerable  justification  of  the  practices  in  question  may  be  found, 
iind  that  toleration  of  them  by  those  accustomed  to  them  is  as  likely  to  be  the  toleration  devel- 
oped by  a  better  understanding  of  conditions  as  the  toleration  of  indifference  to  wrong  through 
familiarity  with  it. 

Buying  and  Borrowing  Exhibition    Birds. 

Though  I  had  cited  only  the  borrowing  of  exhibition  birds  as  an  evil  to  be  specially  con- 
sidered here,  that  can  hardly  be  discussed  as  It  should  be  without  some  reference  to  the  buying, 
of  birds  for  exhibition. 


136  LL550N5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

Every  novice  in  the  show  room,  and  I  think  I  may  say  every  veteran  as  well,  is  possessed  of 
the  ambition  to  put  into  an  exhibition  a  string  of  birds  of  his  own  breeding  that  will  win  prizes 
enough  to  give  him  high  honor  as  a  breeder.  To  the  novice  it  looks  like  a  matter  of  buying 
good  stock  to  start  with  and  carefully  selecting  and  reserving  his  choicest  specimens.  The 
veteran  sees  the  matter  differently.  He  knows  that  while  it  might  be  an  easy  matter  to  do  that 
if  lie  had  the  field  to  himself,  with  so  many  others  striving  to  do  the  same  thing  there  will 
almost  invariably  be  a  general  division  of  prizes  in  any  competition  which  is  a  competition  in 
fact  as  well  as  in  name.  It  is  only  at  rare  intervals  that  a  breeder  of  a  variety  in  which  there 
is  strong  competition  produces  in  his  own  yards  as  many  first  class  specimens  as  he  needs  to 
«nter  in  a  strong  class  with  reasonable  expectation  of  getting  his  share  of  the  prizes  given.  The 
really  first  class  specimens  are  as  a  rule  produced  a  few  here  and  a  few  there  —  many  of  them 
by  persons  who  either  do  not  care  to  exhibit  or  would  rather  part  with  them  at  a  good  figure 
than  take  the  trouble,  risk,  and  uncertainty  of  winning  in  exhibition.  Hence  there  are  every 
year  for  sale  a  good  many  birds  such  as  the  breeders  who  wish  to  make  large  displays  need  to 
supplement  their  own  production. 

The  rules  of  shows  generally  require  that  the  bird  exhibited  shall  be  the  bona  fide  property 
of  the  owner.  That  means  that  it  must  be  his  absolutely  without  any  understanding  or  reserva- 
tion. Occasionally  at  some  show  or  in  some  special  competition  it  is  required  that  only  birds 
tired  by  the  exhibitor  be  entered  by  him,  but  as  a  rule  the  shows  make  no  requirement  of  this 
aiature  going  back  of  present  ownership.  The  buying  and  selling  of  exhibition  fowls  cannot  by 
any  reasonable  interpretation  or  application  of  common  principles  of  right  and  wrong  be  made 
a  wrong  or  even  an  objectionable  practice.  On  the  contrary,  in  its  legitimate  phases  it  may  be 
«aid  to  be  the  most  important  feature  of  the  interest  in  standard  bred  poultry. 

But  about  this  entirely  legitimate  feature  of  the  business  have  grown  up  several  abuses,  most 
conspicuous  of  which  is  the  lending  and  borrowing  of  specimens  for  exhibition. 

This  is  carried  on  in  two  ways :  —By  simple  borrowing  and  lending  with  not  even  a  nominal 
«hange  in  the  actual  ownership  of  the  bird  ;  and  by  fictitious  sale,  or  sale  on  such  terms  that  it 
is  substantially  fictitious. 

The  practice  began  with  simple  borrowing  and  lending,  but  as  poultry  exhibitors  generally 
irowned  on  it  and  general  opinion  would  not  condone  it  as  it  does  some  of  the  more  prevalent 
iorms  of  faking,  those  who  wished  to  avail  themselves  of  the  use  of  exhibition  specimens 
•which  they  could  not  buy  outright,  and  those  who  for  various  reasons  were  willing  that  their 
*>irds  should  be  exhibited  by  others,  devised  the  plan  of  selling  birds  conditionally,  the  bird  to 
t>e  returned  after  the  show,  and  the  price  paid  for  it  to  be  refunded.  Such  an  arrangement  is 
of  course  a  mere  juggle  with  right  and  wrong.  The  fiction  of  a  sale  does  no  more  than  make  it 
impossible  to  prove  the  facts  in  the  case  until  after  the  awards  are  made  and  the  premiums 
paid.  It  does  not  often  happen  that  birds  "lent"  in  this  way  get  back  to  their  owner  without 
interested  competitors  of  the  exhibitor  finding  it  out  sooner  or  later.  Actual  and  positive  proof 
of  wrong  doing  and  identification  of  birds  is  however  so  difficult  that  so  far  no  effective  check 
Sias  been  put  on  the  practice.  I  do  not  think  anyone  has  ever  attempted  to  justify  it.  The 
sid vantages  to  be  gained  by  it,  both  for  those  who  borrow  and  those  who  lend,  are  so  great  that 
the  temptation  to  make  arrangements  of  this  kind  are  very  strong,  and  though  the  proportion 
of  specimens  in  any  show  not  actually  the  property  of  the  exhibitor  in  whose  name  they  are 
entered  is  probably  always  very  small,  I  suppose  that  there  are  few  exhibitors  who  have  not  at 
some  time,  perhaps  in  a  very  small  way,  yielded  to  the  temptation  to  lend  or  to  borrow.  Many 
•\vlio  would  not  exhibit  birds  not  their  own,  have  occasionally  lent  birds.  Many  who  think  the 
practice  wrong  have  in  emergencies  borrowed  birds.  With  the  great  majority  such  lapses  have 
l>een  exceptional,  not  habitual. 

The  disposition  to  lend — to  do  a  fellow  fancier  a  favor  —  is  a  manifestation  of  an  excellent 
trait  in  human  nature.  With  many  fanciers  the  need  of  not  indulging  it  does  not  become 
sipparent  until,  having  indulged  it,  they  find  that  they  must  share  in  the  common  condemnation 
of  the  borrower. 

The  opportunity  to  borrow,  say,  at  the  time  when  a  loss  of  or  injury  to  a  specimen  upon 
which  an  exhibitor  was  relying  has  greatly  diminished  his  prospects  of  making  a  good  win- 
ning, presents  itself  as  an  evil  of  very  small  importance  compared  with  the  loss  from  which 


CHARACTLR  OF  POULTRY  JUDGES.  137 

it  may  save  him;  but  unless  of  feelings  more  callous  than  is  usual  among  poultrymen,  the 
borrower  in  the  end  resolves  that  he  will  never  do  it  again. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  of  this  particular  abuse  that  while  it  is  prevalent  enough  to  be 
a  very  disturbing  influence,  the  general  attitude  of  exhibitors  toward  it,  and  the  fact  that  of 
late  there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  serious  discussion  of  practical  ways  of  preventing  it,  give 
reason  to  hope  that  it  is  an  evil  practice  which  is  doomed  to  become  less  and  less  prevalent. 
Much  might  be  said  of  the  results  of  this  practice,  but  the  limits  of  this  lesson  make  it  neces- 
sary to  pass  over  that  phase  of  the  subject  with  the  remark  that  it  develops  consequences 
similar  to  those  consequences  of  faking  which  especially  concern  the  purchasers  of  stock,  and 
develops  them  in  larger  proportions  and  more  aggravated  type. 

Collusion    of    Exhibitors    and    Judges. 

Poultry  judges,  as  a  class,  are  scrupulously  careful  and  honest  in  placing  their  awards. 
Such  a  statement  may  surprise  some  who  have  at  the  same  time  the  opposite  idea  about  poultry 
judges,  and  think  they  have  observed  that  I  try  to  make  no  statements  I  cannot 'maintain.  But 
I  make  this  statement  deliberately  from  a  tolerably  large  acquaintance  with  poultry  judges, 
extending  back  over  many  years,  in  which  I  have  watched  their  work  in  the  show  room,  seen 
some  of  their  mistakes  there,  talked  with  them,  and  heard  them  talk  with  others  about  their 
errors,  and  learned  also  of  their  shortcomings  outside  of  the  show  room. 

There  are  few  positions  in  life  where  it  is  harder  for  a  man  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  evil 
than  in  the  position  of  poultry  judge,  and  few  men  who  in  that  position  are  not  constantly 
called  upon  to  meet  situations  where  they  must  decide  off-hand  matters  for  which  anyone 
would,  if  possible,  ask  time  for  deliberation.  This  is  true  of  points  which  must  be  passed 
upon  in  judging;  equally  true  and  of  more  importance  on  points  that  come  up  with  reference 
to  his  relations  to  officials  and  exhibitors.  To  some  extent  it  is  true  of  any  transaction  of  any 
kind  in  which  he  may  engage.  For  instance,  a  judge,  as  a  breeder,  may  sell  exhibition  fowls 
to  parties  upon  whose  exhibits  he  never  expects  to  be  called  to  pass,  and  in  the  course  of  bis 
judging  engagements  may  recognize  those  birds.  There  are  very  few  judges  who,  in  such  a 
case,  would  not  endeavor  to  place  the  awards  honestly  and  fairly,  yet  probably  every  judge 
who  is  ever  placed  in  such  a  position  has  realized  the  difficulty  of  feeling  sure  that  he  was 
acting  without  bias  either  for  or  against  this  stock,  and  has  realized  also  that  if  it  received 
awards  he  would  be  charged  with  having  favored  it  —  charged  with  collusion  with  the  exhib- 
itor; and  that  if  it  failed  to  get  recognition  the  exhibitor  might  charge  him,  as  a  breeder,  with 
selling  as  first  class  stock  which  he,  as  a  judge,  would  not  award  a  prize. 

There  are  few,  if  any,  judges  who  have  managed  to  keep  clear  of  every  possible  ground  for 
suggestion  or  suspicion  of  collusion  with  exhibitors.  Most  judges,  without  giving  chapter  and 
verse,  would  probably  admit  in  a  general  way  that  at  times  they  had  erred  in  their  relations 
with  officials  and  exhibitors,  as  well  as  made  mistakes  in  the  placing  of  awards.  With  so 
many  exhibitions,  so  many  judges,  and  so  many  exhibitor-,  there  is  always  somewhere  some- 
thing that  furnishes  occasion  for  talk  about  the  mistakes  or  the  crookedness,  or  the  vices  of 
judges,  and,  given  the  occasion,  there  is  generally  a  great  deal  more  talk  than  the  circumstances 
warrant.  The  result  of  it  all  is  to  give  to  many  an  impression  of  prevailing  wrong  doing  by 
judges  entirely  out  of  proportion  to  the  actual  conditions. 

While  it  is  the  little  mistakes  and  little  errors  of  judges  that  furnish  most  of  the  material 
upon  which  people  build  the  opinion  that  crookedness  prevails,  there  are  unquestionably  some- 
times very  wrong  things  done  by  judges,  and  often  in  such  cases  there  is  good  reason  to  believe 
that  they  are  done  deliberately.  Whether  the  judges  who  do  them  are  indifferent  to  common 
standards  of  right  and  wrong,  or  feel  so  convinced  of  their  own  integrity  and  reputation  that 
they  think  they  may  disregard  appearances,  I  do  not  know.  The  general  poultry  public,  and 
the  novices  who  form  an  uncomplimentary  opinion  of  judges,  hear  comparatively  little  of  the 
larger  and  worse  instances  of  delinquencies  of  judges. 

Usually,  with  experience  in  poultry  shows,  a  wider  acquaintance  with  judges,  and  more  par- 
ticular knowledge  of  their  faults,  and  of  the  judges  who  oftenest  furnish  occasion  for  criticism, 
•  one  outgrows  the  attitude  of  general  condemnation,  and  applies  his  disapproval  more  specific- 


138  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  — SLCOND  SLRILS. 

ally,  and  with  better  discrimination.  With  :i  more  correct  appreciation  of  the  situation  I  think 
an  exhibitor  is  much  more  likely  to  so  govern  his  conduct  toward  his  exhibits  and  the  judge 
as  not  to  put  the  judge  in  an  equivocal  position.  Exhibitors  who  do  this  become  more  careful 
on  their  own  account  as  they  learn  that  while  they  may,  by  attempting  to  act  on  the  supposition 
that  a  judge's  decision  may  be  influenced,  put  him  in  an  equivocal  position,  their  acts  are 
observed  by  other  exhibitors,  and  these  may  feel  doubtful  about  the  judge  in  such  cases,  but 
their  attitude  toward  the  offending  exhibitor  is  one  of  unequivocal  condemnation. 

An  exhibitor  who  feels  tempted  —  and  perhaps  especially  tempted  because  he  has  imbibed 
the  notion  that  judges  are  crooked  —  to  tamper  with  the  judge,  may  be  interested  in  knowing 
that  instances  of  judges  being  directly  influenced  in  the  placing  of  awards  are  extremely  rare. 
Almost  as  rare  are  instances  where  a  judge  does  not  resent  any  palpable  attempt  to  influence 
his  decision.  The  common  cases  of  apparent  bias  or  prejudice  for  or  against  an  exhibitor 
depend  generally  on  the  fact  that  thp  occasion  takes  the  judge  off  his  guard  —  that  is,  the 
judge's  errors  are  unintentional  —  unconscious.  Probably  if  anyone  had  the  same  interest  in 
circulating  stories  of  instances  where  the  judge  had  shown  a  judicial  cold  blooded  disinter- 
estedness in  the^exhibits  of  his  friend  it  would  be  found  that  such  instances  were  many  times 
more  numerous  than  the  others. 

The  general  disposition  of  oflicials  at  shows  and  exhibitions  is  to  hold  judges  to  a  very  high 
standard  of  work,  and  in  their  dealings  with  those  whose  interests  their  decisions  in  any  way 
aflect.  At  the  same  time  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  conditions  under  which  their  work  bus 
to  be  done  makes  the  veteran  show  official  or  exhibitor  much  more  lenient  in  his  judgment  of  a 
poultry  judge's  occasional  shortcomings,  and  he  is  not  PO  ready  to  utterly  condemn  a  judge  for 
things  which  while  objectionable  or  deplorable  do  not  seriously  aflect  his  efficiency  or  irretriev- 
ably ruin  his  reputation  with  discriminating  fanciers. 


STANDARD  OF  MORALITY  IN  POULTRY  CULTURE.  139 


LESSON      XVII. 


Business   florality    in    Poultry   Culture. 


WHOEVER    becomes    interested  —  ever  so  Ihtle  —  in  thoroughbred    poultry   culture 
discovers  almost  at  once  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  persons  similarly  interested 
believe  that  the  moral  tone  of  the  industry  is  distinctly  below  the  average.      He 
will  find  many  people  who  believe  and  say  this,  and  many  others  who  go  furtber 
and  declare  that  this  extent  of  business  immorality  among  poultrymen  has  so  disgusted. them 
with  the  business  and  those  engaged  in  it,  that  they  have  either  withdrawn  from  it  entirely, 
or  limit  their  active  interest  in  it  as  much  as  is  necessary  to  keep  them  quite  strictly  apart 
from  those  who  indulge  in  or  condone  the  practices  which  they  condemn. 

It  is  wise  and  well  to  take  such  statements  with  a  liberal  degree  of  allowance  for  the 
accuracy  of  the  narrator's  information  as  to  general  conditions  and  the  correctness  of  his 
representation  of  his  own  case.  The  poultry  industry,  like  every  other,  has  its  peculiar  con- 
ditions ottering  temptation  or  inducement  for  peculiar  manifestations  of  the  errors  of  omission 
and  commision  to  which  human  nature  is  prone,  and  the  well  known  rule  that  men  are  much 
more  impressed  with  the  exceeding  sinfulnessof  sin  with  which  they  are  not  familiar,  applies 
here  as  elsewhere.  So  that  it  may  readily  be  admitted  that  such  evils  as  are  complained  of 
do  exist,  and  that  they  do  make  a  very  strong  impression  upon  the  minds  of  many  who  see 
something  of  them. 

Whether  these  evils  are  such  and  of  such  proportions  as  to  give  an  uncommonly  low 
general  moral  tone  to  poultry  culture;  and  whether  the  persons  who  complain  so  much  of 
them,  and  attribute  their  own  lack  of  greater  interest  in  poultry  culture  to  them,  are  correct 
in  their  diagnosis  of  tlveir  case,  are  questions  upon  which  I  wish  to  make  some  comments 
before  proceeding  to  discuss  independently  some  of  the  real  evils  of  the  poultry  business, 
their  causes,  and  the  means  to  be  taken  for  minimizing  them. 

General    florality    in    the    Poultry    Business. 

I  think  that,  with  very  few  exceptions  —  perhaps  without  exception  —  those  familiar  with 
the  general  conditions  in  the  poultry  business,  and  intimate  with  a  great  many  men  engaged 
in  it,  will  agree  that  the  general  moral  tone  in  the  industry  is  the  same  as  the  general  moral 
tone  of  the  community.  That  means  that,  on  the  whole,  the  transactions  of  poultrymrn  and 
between  poultrymen  must  be  satisfactory  to  all  parties  concerned. 

Now  we  know  that  it  is  possible  in  some  kinds  of  business  for  those  engaged  in  the  busi- 
ness to  do  a  dishonest  business  and  still  hold  a  large  proportion  of  their  clients  or  customers. 
This  is  accomplished  by  concealing  the  dishonesty  of  transactions,  by  deceiving  customers  as 
to  their  character.  In  the  poultry  industry  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  acts  of  crooked- 
ness alleged  to  have  occurred  are  of  such  character  that  to  continually  deceive  the  same 
persons  by  them  is  impossible.  In  fact,  they  are  acts  which — if  actually  committed  —  are 
detected  even  by  a  tyro  in  the  business,  with  comparative  ease.  A  bucket  shop  operator's 
victims  cannot  readily  discover  the  mechanism,  or  follow  the  intricacies  of  the  methods  by 
which  their  separation  from  their  money  seems  to  be  the  result  of  causes  beyond  the  control 
of  the  operator,  but  the  man  who  buys  a  fowl  that  does  not  answer  the  description  given 


140  LL5SONS  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SLCOND  5LRIL5. 

bim,  and  who  finds  that  other  people  buying  from  the  same  parties  receive  the  same  treatment, 
Las  to  do  with  a  very  plain  and  simple  case  of  error  or  fraud  involving  nothing  beyond  the 
personalities  and  judgment  of  the  two  parties  to  the  transaction.  Hence  it  is  theoretically 
true,  (and,  as  a  rule,  is  found  to  be  true  in  practice),  that  it  is  impossible  for  poultry  breeders 
either  to  perpetrate  colossal  frauds,  or  to  continue  indefinitely  a  regular  system  of  dishonest 
dealing.  So  true  is  this  that  it  is  commonly  said  that  a  fraud  is  more  easily  detected  and  more 
'quickly  compelled  to  go  out  of  business  iu  this  industry  than  in  any  other  line.  As  a  general 
proposition,  1  believe  that  this  is  true,  though  occasionally  we  find  a  case  which  we  think  is 
the  exception  —  a  breeder  of  and  dealer  in  poultry  commonly  believed  to  be  habitually  dis- 
honest, yet  able  to  go  on  doing  business,  and  apparently  a  good  business,  for  a  long 
period.  Such  a  man's  successful  dishonesty  may  be  explained  by  unusual  capacity  forgetting 
the  benefits  of  crookedness  without  incurring  its  penalties.  Such  "crooks"  in  the  poultry 
busine>s  have  their  counterparts  in  every  calling.  In  no  legitimate  calling  do  they  establish 
the  moral  tone  of  that  calling. 

How    Some    Failures   Let   Themselves    Down   Easily. 

One  of  the  commonest  things  in  everyday  life  is  to  hear  men  assign  for  their  conduct  in  a 
matter,  or  for  any  condition  for  which  they  might  be  censured,  a  reason  more  creditable  to 
themselves  than  the  true  reason.  This  is  not  always  done  with  deliberate  intent  to  deceive 
others.  Often  the  person  giving  the  reason  deceives  himself  first.  He  looks  for  a  reason  that 
suits  him,  and,  having  found  one,  takes  it  as  sufficient  for  himself.  I  would  not  say  that 
everyone  who  gives  as  a  reason  for  his  failure  to  develop  his  interest  in  poultry  the  crooked- 
ness of  the  business  was  a  failure  in  what  he  had  tried  to  do  in  it.  I  would  say,  and  I  think 
the  concensus  of  opinion  of  well  informed  poultrymen  who  have  thought  the  matter  over 
will  agree  with  the  statement  —  that  most  of  the  persons  I  have  known  who  have  given  this 
reason  for  going  out  of  poultry,  or  doing  little  with  it,  have  been  persons  for  whose  failure, 
or  lack  of  interest,  experienced  poultrymen  who  knew  them  would  have  assigned  other 
reasons.  Theirs  is  merely  a  case  of  "  sour  grapes." 

Because  of  the  frequency  of  instances  of  persons  who  not  having  realized  their  expectations 
in  poultry  culture  attribute  their  lapses  of  activity  to  the  evils  of  the  calling  in  general,  or  to 
the  deceptions  or  frauds  of  specified  individuals  or  concerns,  I  advise  those  wishing  to  form 
for  themselves  a  true  estimate  of  the  matter,  to  keep  the  point  I  have  just  mentioned  in 
mind,  and  not  to  accept  an  explanation  discrediting  the  calling  generally  from  men  who 
individually  were  no  credit  as  fanciers  or  poultrymen  either  to  themselves  or  to  the  fraternity. 

Peculiar   Conditions    in    the    Poultry    Business. 

To  properly  appreciate  moral  conditions  in  the  poultry  industry  it  is  necessary  first  of  all 
to  recognize  in  it  certain  peculiar  conditions  which  foster  what  we  may  call  the  ''sins  of 
ignorance"  —  the  mistakes  of  novices  which  furnish  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  trans- 
actions which  might  at  first  seem  fraudulent  than  is  commonly  supposed. 

In  thoroughbred  poultry  we  are  dealing  with  a  commodity  in  which  good  judgment  of 
values  cannot  be  acquired  quickly,  because  the  adjustment  of  values  is  a  very  complex 
problem.  At  the  same  time  we  are  dealing  with  a  commodity  of  the  class  in  which,  as  a 
rule,  novices  who  are  much  interested  greatly  overvalue  their  own  judgment,  because  they 
<lo  not  realize  how  much  values  depend  upon  distinctions  which,  as  novices,  they  are  not 
yet  able  to  make.  To  put  it  briefly  and  bluntly,  the  real  eause  of  the  failure  of  a  great 
many  sellers  of  poultry  to  do  what  they  ought  to  do  is  ignorance  of  qualities  and  values  in 
the  goods  in  which  they  are  dealing.  This  fact  need  not  surprise  anyone  who  will  consider 
how  common  it  is  to  see  people  beginning  to  sell  thoroughbred  poultry  and  eggs  for  hatching 
while  their  acquaintance  with  the  breed  or  variety  they  handle  goes  no  further  than  the  stock 
they  have  in  their  own  yards,  and  their  experience  with  this  may  date  back  but  a  few  months. 

Now  so  far  as  the  individuals  in  question  are  concerned,  this  period  of  ignorance  of  values 
is  a  stage  in  their  poultry  experience.  Most  of  them  outgrow  it  quickly  as  to  serious  errors, 
and  quite  completely  within  a  few  years.  And  so  far  as  the  industry  at  large  is  concerned, 
tbe  presence  in  it  of  a  class  of  novices  who  unintentionally  make  mistakes  which  are  due  to 


INFLULNCL  OF  IDLA5  ON  CONDUCT.  141 

ignorance,  but  may  be  attributed  to  crookedness,  is  a  condition  which,  for  all  we  can  see  now, 
must  continue  indefinitely,  for  each  year  the  industry  takes  in  a  considerable  body  of  new 
recruits,  and  there  is  no  apparent  diminution  in  the  confidence  of  novices  in  their  judgment 
of  fowls.  So  we  have  always  the  same  mistakes  made,  but  made  mostly  by  newcomers.  I 
am  speaking  now  of  the  great  body  of  errors  that  furnish  occasion  for  charges  and  rumors 
of  crookedness  and  fraud,  not  of  the  occasional  instances  of  Intentional  crookedness.  Sub- 
stantially all  of  those  who  continue  in  the  business  show  by  their  later  conduct  in  it  that  the 
errors  of  the  first  years  were  errors  in  judgment — not  intentional  frauds. 

There  is  another  side  to  the  story  of  errors  of  this  class.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the 
buyers  of  poultry  are  even  more  ignorant  of  quality  and  value  than  the  average  novice  selling 
poultry,  and  no  whit  less  confident  in  their  own  judgment  of  these  points.  Such  buyers  are 
prone  to  find  fault  when  no  ground  for  faultfinding  exists;  not  always  because  they  are  dis- 
posed to  find  fault,  but  because  their  ideas  of  quality  in  fowls  are  badly  distorted.  These 
buyers,  ,too,  as  they  grow  in  experience  and  judgment,  mostly  pass  out  of  the  class  who  have 
many  stories  to  tell  to  illustrate  the  prevalence  of  fraud  and  deceit  in  the  poultry  business. 

While  there  are  to  be  found  here  and  there  persons  who,  even  after  they  are  competent  • 
judges  of  the  goods  of  different  kinds  handled  in  this  industry  and  its  allied  branches,  are  still 
so  much  impressed  by  the  evils  they  do  see  and  meet  that  they  see  them  out  of  proportion  to 
the  transactions  which  involve  no  crookedness,  the  bad  reputation  for  morality,  as  is  given  the 
poultry  business,  does  not  in  general  get  much  confirmation  from  those  who  know  the  business. 
Among  them  it  is  regarded,  as  in  fact  it  is,  as  neither  better  nor  worse  in  a  general  way  than 
other  lines.  The  importance  to  the  poultry  man,  whether  a  dealer  or  a  buyer,  of  appreciating 
the  real  moral  status  of  the  industry  is  found  in  the  connection  between  his  ideas  of  business 
morality  among  poultrymen,  and  his  own  standards  of  practice  in  selling,  and  the  attitude 
which  he  takes  when  buying.  If  one  who  has  poultry  to  sell  believes  that  the  general  moral 
tone  in  such  transactions  is  low,  he  will  often — perhaps  unintentionally  —  be  less  careful  in 
his  own  dealings  than  he  would  be  if  he  believed  that  the  usual  practice  was  to  give  honest 
values.  It  is  human  nature  to  measure  conduct  by  that  of  others,  and  to  be  satisfied  if  we  can 
feel  that  we  are  a  little  better  than  the  average.  If  one  who  is  buying  poultry  believes  that 
all  dealers  in  fowls  are  rogues  looking  always  for  opportunities  to  defraud,  and  indifferent  as 
to  whether  customers  are  suited  or  not  so  long  as  they  get  their  money  and  escape  the  penalties 
of  their  practices,  he  is  afraid  to  be  satisfied  with  what  he  gets,  and  is  apt  to  condemn  it  on 
general  principles  first,  and  then  begin  to  look  for  specific  faults. 

Some  Specific   Alleged    Evils   of   the    Poultry    Business. 

When  we  say  that  the  poultry  business  is  neither  better  nor  worse,  on  the  whole,  in  moral 
tone,  than  the  community,  we  admit  that  it  contains  a  great  deal  of  evil.  1  have  already  said 
that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  evils  in  the  poultry  business  —  of  the  wrongs  done  by 
poultrymen  in  their  dealings  with  each  other  —  consists  of  unintentional  evils  which  most 
poultrymeu  avoid  after  they  have  learned  .wherein  they  were  at  fault.  Another  considerable 
proportion  of  the  wrongs  of  which  complaint  is  made  consists  of  disappointments  which  come 
—  according  to  my  view  —  as  phases  of  the  ordinary  risks  of  the  business.  In  a  great  many 
cases  these  two  classes  of  unsatisfactory  incidents  are  mixed,  both  contributing  to  make  the 
unsatisfactory  situation.  So,  it  would  be  difficult  to  make  any  hard  and  fast  classification  of 
evils  according  to  causes,  and  I  shall  not  attempt  to  do  so,  but  simply  mention  a  number  of 
the  most  common  sins  attributed  to  poultrymen,  and  discuss  each  in  order. 

Doctoring    Eggs   for    Hatching. 

A  beginner  in  poultry  culture  buys  eggs  for  hatching,  and  gets  nothing  at  all,  or  a  few 
chicks  from  them.  He  is  disappointed  and  sore.  An  acquaintance  professing  to  be  acquainted 
with  the  ways  of  poultrymen,  suggests  that  probably  the  eggs  were  infertile,  or  were  treated 
in  some  way  to  prevent  their  hatching.  He  will  say  positively  that  this  is  a  common  practice 
among  breeders  of  fine  stock  who  wish  at  the  same  time  to  get  an  income  from  their  stock 
commensurate  with  its  quality  and  reputation,  and  to  prevent  their  customers  becoming  their 
successful  competitors.  So  much  is  said  and  has  been  said  with  great  positiveness  in  regard 


142  LL550N5   IN    POULTRY   KLLPING  —  SLCOND  5LRIL5 

to  the  prevalence  of  this  practice  that  a  great  many  people  who  are  by  no  means  novices  in 
the  business  believe  that  the  reports  of  it  mu>t  be  true,  and  that  it  must  be  very  general,  or 
there  would  not  be  so  many  people  so  sure  of  it. 

Considering  the  extent  to  which  descriptions  of  evil  constitute  to  some  minds  suggestions 
of  evil,  it  would  be  strange  if,  with  so  much  said  of  this  evil,  instances  of  it  were  not  numer- 
ous, yet  I  have  never  personally  known  of  a  single  instance  of  this  being  done;  nor  have  I 
«ver  heard  an  instance  of  it  reported  by  one  whose  testimony  could  be  accepted  as  conclu- 
sive. Hence  while  I  would  not  affirm  that  such  an  evil  did  not  exist,  I  think  that,  consider- 
ing the  exceptional  opportunities  I  have  had  of  discovering  it,  that  I  am  justified  in  asserting 
my  belief  that  instances  of  such  dishonesty  are  extremely  rare. 

The  fact  is,  that  there  is  no  reason  why  any  sensible  or  shrewd  person  should  not  want  the 
eggs  he  sells  to  hatch,  and  there  are  many  reasons  why  it  is  to  his  advantage  to  have  them 
hatch  well. 

Substituting  Eggs  from    Inferior    Stock    in    Filling   Orders. 

This  is  an  evil  which,  on  their  general  impression  of  the  unreliability  of  poultrymen,  many 
suspect  even  when  they  have  no  positive  proof  of  it.  Absolute  and  positive  proof  of  it  is  hard 
to  get,  but  traces  of  it  may  be  found  on  all  sides.  While  it  is  probable  that  the  great  majority 
of  breeders  are  strictly  honest  in  this  matter,  I  think  that  there  is  ample  reason  to  believe  that 
the  number  of  those  who,  either  as  a  regular  practice  or  in  emergencies,  will  substitute  eggs 
that  are  not  what  the  customer  ordered,  is  very  considerable.  I  base  this  opinion  not  on  com- 
plaints of  persons  who  think  they  have  been  imposed  upon  in  this  way,  but  upon  the  number 
of  poultrymen  I  have  found  who,  without  actually  admitting  that  they  did  this,  would  refer 
to  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  impression  that  they  considered  it  a  not  very  culpable  offense; 
on  a  number  of  instances  coming  under  n?y  own  observation  when  visiting  poultry  plants 
where  it  appeared  that  the  orders  for  the  best  grades  of  eggs  said  to  have  been  received  could 
not  have  been  filled  with  eggs  from  the  stock  of  that  grade;  and  on  the  occasional  statements  of 
men  I  believe  to  be  trustworthy  who  told  me  that  it  was  a  regular  or  occasional  practice  on 
•certain  plants  on  which  they  had  been  employed. 

With  regard  to  the  matter  treated  under  the  previous  heading,  I  would  say  that  the  prob- 
abilities of  a  buyer  of  eggs  being  supplied  with  eggs  which  the  seller  had  treated  to  prevent 
batching,  were  extremely  small,  and  the  point  need  not  be  considered  in  ordering.  With 
regard  to  the  matter  of  filling  orders  with  eggs  not  filling  the  specifications,  I  would  consider 
that  a  buyer  ran  some  risk,  but  not  a  very  great  risk.  In  what  ratio  this  risk  would  be  repre- 
sented, I  do  not  know.  Probably  one  in  ten  would  be  an  excessive  estimate  of  the  chances  of 
getting  an  order  made  up  in  any  part  of  eggs  not  as  ordered,  and  I  would  suppose  one  in  fifty 
a  liberal  estimate  of  the  proportion  of  poultrymen  who  make  a  practice  of  giving  eggs  of 
grade  inferior  to  those  ordered.  I  offer  these  estimates  only  as  indicating  how  much  more 
rare  this  practice  is  than  many  suppose. 

The  application  of  general  moral  principles  to  the  situation  presents  two  phases: 

First,  there  is  the  seller's  side  of  the  question.  This  phase  of  it  presents  no  complexities. 
There  is  only  one  thing  for  an  honest  man  to  do,  and  one  alternative:  The  one  thing  is  till 
orders  with  goods  of  the  class  and  grade  advertised  for  sale  at  the  price.  The  alternative  is 
to  state  his  inability  to  fill  the  order,  and  to  return  the  money. 

The  other  phase  of  the  question  is  not  so  simple.  Many  persons  who  wish  to  buy  eggs  for 
batching  must  buy  of  poultrymen  of  whom  they  know  nothing,  or  not  buy  at  all.  To  say  that 
if  one  cannot  be  sure  of  the  honesty  of  the  parties  with  whom  he  is  dealing  he  had  better  let 
transactions  of  that  class  alone,  is  not  to  offer  a  practical  solution  of  the  difficulty.  More- 
over such  a  rule  imposed  on  transactions  in  eggs  is  unreasonable  because  it  puts  on  a  transaction 
into  which  an  unusual  element  of  chance  inevitably  enters  a  rule  more  rigid  than  could  be 
applied  even  in  transactions  from  which  chance  might  be  almost  completely  eliminated.  In 
other  words,  a  person  who  takes  the  position  that  he  will  buy  eggs  or  poultry  only  from 
breeders  he  thinks  he  is  sure  of,  arbitrarily  ma-kes  this  a  thing  in  which  he  will  take  no  risks. 
It  is  his  privilege  to  do  that  if  he  wishes,  but  doing  it  too  often  puts  one  in  the  list  of  those 
who  are  said  to  cut  off  the  nose  to  spite  the  face.  A  more  reasonable  way  to  look  at  it  is  to 


ORDINARY  RI5K5  IN  POULTRY  TRANSACTIONS.  143 

make  allowance  for  possible  fraud  of  this  kind,  and  consider  it  not  as  an  outrage  to  be  carried 
to  the  press,  or  into  the  courts,  but  as  an  ordinary  risk,  figuring  the  price  of  eggs  which,  for 
any  reason  give  unsatisfactory  results,  into  the  total  cost  of  the  articles  purchased. 

To  illustrate:  Suppose  A  is  a  novice  who  is  so  situated  that  he  cannot  have  any  direct 
knowledge  of  any  breeder  of  the  variety  of  fowls  in  which  he  wishes  to  invest.  Suppose  he 
wants  to  begin  with  eggs.  It  is  clearly  impossible  for  him  to  learn  of  the  different  breeders' 
stocks  and  of  their  methods  of  dealing  with  customers  in  any  other  way  than  by  buying  of 
them.  He  must  take  some  risks  or  not  buy.  The  first  man  from  whom  he  buys  may  not  use 
him  right.  He  may  avoid  a  large  loss  by  making  his  first  investment  small.  If  he  is  in  a 
position  to  buy  a  considerable  quantity  of  eggs  he  can  reduce  the  risks  of  unsatisfactory 
results  by  dividing  his  order  among  several  breeders.  By  doing  this  he  is  not  likely  to  get 
as  good  results  in  the  aggregate  as  he  would  have  had  if  he  had  placed  the  entire  order  with 
the  party  or  parties  whose  eggs  gave  him  best  results;  but  he  knew  nothing  of  what  to  expect 
when  he  placed  the  order,  and  we  may  assume  that  he  has  done  much  better  on  the  whole  than 
if  he  had  placed  the  whole  order  with  one  of  those  whose  eggs  gave  him  poorest  results. 
Further,  while  a  single  test  and  comparison  of  this  kind  does  not  furnish  conclusive  evidence 
as  to  the  character  of  breeders  and  the  quality  of  the  various  stocks,  it  does  afford  useful 
information  on  these  points,  and  the  beginner  enters  upon  his  next  transaction  with  better 
assurance  of  getting  what  he  wants. 

One  who  will  not  buy  until  he  is  sure  of  those  he  deals  with  may  easily  lose  more  by  wait- 
ing than  another  who  takes  chances  will  lose  by  the  crookedness  of  some  with  whom  he  may 
deal.  It  is  simply  a  case  of  "  nothing  venture,  nothing  have." 

Boughten    Eggs    Which    Hatch    Unsatisfactory    Stock. 

The  result  indicated  in  the  above  heading  is  properly  classed  as  an  evil  only  when  the 
unsatisfactory  results  are  due  to  causes  reasonably  within  the  control  of  the  person  selling 
the  eggs.  It  is  not  always  possible  to  say  in  any  particular  case  whether  the  seller  or  the  buyer 
is  responsible  for  unsatisfactory  results.  It  is  a  fact,  well  known  to  poultry  keepers  whose 
experience  has  made  them  observe  the  point,  that  eggs  from  good  stock  may  produce  chicks 
which,  under  certain  unfavorable  conditions  of  care,  feeding,  and  environment  develop  into 
specimens  so  inferior  to  the  parent  stock  as  to  make  it  hard  to  believe  that  they  are  the 
progeny  of  that  stock.  The  fact  that  the  inferiority  is  due  to  such  causes  as  are  mentioned 
above  is  established  in  cases  where  from  eggs  produced  at  substantially  the  same  time,  chicks 
hatched  by  one  party  develop  as  would  be  expected,  while  those  hatched  by  another  party  are 
a  disappointment.  Most  of  the  inferior  chicks  from  stock  of  fine  quality  are  accounted  for  by 
lack  of  accommodations  and  lack  of  skill  in  those  caring  for  them ;  but  change  of  climate  some- 
times has  decidedly  unfavorable  effects  on  chicks. 

From  this  the  reader  will  see  that  the  fact  that  chicks  from  certain  stock  were  unsatisfactory, 
does  not  prove  that  the  breeder  was  dishonest.  It  should  leave  it  an  open  question  in  the 
buyer's  mind  whether  the  fault  lay  with  the  seller,  with  himself,  or  with  some  person  who  had 
opportunity  to  change  the  eggs  in  transit.  That  is  done  to  some  extent,  though  how  much  it 
is  not  possible  to  say.  It  can  be  prevented  by  sealing  packages.  Some  poultrymen  selling  eggs 
for  hatching  seal  every  package  sent  out,  and  advise  customers  to  take  notice  whether  seals  are 
intact,  and  report  if  it  is  found  that  they  have  been  tampered  with. 

The  point  we  are  now  considering  is  not  readily  separated  from  the  preceding  matter  in  an 
effort  to  determine  what  is  wrong  in  an  unsatisfactory  case.  A  breeder  of  poultry  may  send 
eggs  that  are  not  as  represented,  which  yet  give  satisfaction  in  their  results.  He  may  send  just 
what  he  advertised  at  the  price,  and  the  buyer  get  stock  not  at  all  up  to  bis  expectations.  It 
may  be  a  question  then  whether  the  breeder  properly  estimated  the  quality  and  value  of  what 
he  offered  for  sale,  or  if  the  buyer  is  a  competent  judge  of  the  value  of  what  he  produced.  We 
cannot  here  follow  the  intricacies  of  such  questions.  I  mention  them  to  show  the  reader  bow 
impossible  it  is  to  make  offhand  or  general  decisions  as  to  right  and  wrong  in  such  matters. 

We  can,  however,  say  that  when  a  person  advertising  poultry  sells  eggs  he  would  not  expect 
to  give  him  the  results  he  knows  his  customers  want,  he  is  acting  dishonestly,  and  that  when 
the  poultry  keeper  who  is  not  quite  sure  of  his  own  judgment  of  his  stock,  relies  upon  his 
judgment  only  in  selecting  and  mating  it  for  selling  eggs  for  hatching,  he  makes  a  mistake. 


144  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  5LCOND  SLRILS. 

As  far  as  the  buyer  is  concerned,  he  takes  the  usual  risks  on  this  as  on  other  points  when 
dealing  with  parties  not  known  to  him.  There  are  times  when,  were  he  disposed  to  take  the 
matter  to  law,  he  might  secure  redress  in  that  way,  but  usually  the  amount  involved  is  too 
small  to  make  that  worth  while,  and  the  common  sense  of  most  poultrymen  leads  them  to 
charge  such  losses  to  experience,  to  avoid  further  dealings  with  those  they  find  unsatisfactory, 
keep  buying  in  sample  lots  wherever  they  think  they  are  most  likely  to  get  what  they  want, 
and  having  found  one  or  more  breeders  of  the  variety  of  their  choice,  whose  stock  and  method* 
suit  them,  to  do  business  mostly  with  those  breeders. 

Fowls  That  Are  Not  as  Represented. 

The  number  of  fowls  not  up  to  descriptions  sold  each  year  is  considerable  when  reckoned  in 
numbers,  yet  not  so  impressive  when  compared  with  the  whole  number  that  changes  hands. 

Transactions  in  fowls  are  on  quite  a  different  basis  from  transactions  in  eggs.  Generally 
speaking  it  is  not  possible  for  any  marked  change  to  take  place  in  the  appearance  or  condition 
of  the  fowl  in  the  few  hours,  or,  at  most,  few  days,  that  intervene  between  its  shipment  by  the 
seller  and  receipt  by  the  customer.  It  may  reasonably  be  assumed  that  instances  in  which 
fowls  do  not  reach  the  buyer  in  approximately  the  condition  they  were  in  when  packed  for 
shipment  are  exceptional. 

So  if  a  fowl,  on  receipt,  is  found  to  be  unsatisfactory  we  say  that  either  tbe  seller  gave  too 
little  or  the  buyer  expected  too  much,  or  that  their  ideas  of  what  was  wanted  were  so  different 
that  the  transaction  was  on  both  sides  a  mistake.  I  have  known  many  instances  where  people 
finding  fault  with  the  quality  of  the  stock  sent  them  had  no  occasion  to  find  fault  at  all,  the 
stock  being  just  as  represented,  and  the  fault  being  in  the  buyer's  ideas  of  what  constituted 
quality.  I  have  heard  breeders  vigorously  denounced  for  having  shipped  a  customer  high 
priced  stock  decidedly  inferior  to  some  they  had  bought  at  bargain  prices,  when  the  conditions 
as  to  quality  were  just  the  reverse  of  what  the  buyer  supposed,  and  the  trouble  was  that  his 
ideas  were  all  wrong.  When  so  much  dissatisfaction  of  buyers  is  due  to  ignorance  it  is  inevit- 
able that  there  should  be  quite  as  many  instances  of  people  well  satisfied  with  goods  that  are 
not  worth  what  they  pay  for  them.  In  this  is  found  the  breeder's  greatest  temptation  to  take 
chances  in  selling  rather  low  grade  fowls  to  people  who  do  not  appreciate  quality,  but  want 
fowls  that  represent  considerable  sums  of  money. 

The  ethical  and  moral  arguments  that  develop  in  considering  this  phase  of  the  question  are 
too  deep  for  me.  I  have  never  tried  to  corne  to  any  definite  general  conclusions  on  them.  I 
will  here  only  briefly  allude  to  a  few  of  them  that  the  reader  may,  perhaps,  get  some  insight 
into  the  considerations  which  influence  men  with  no  wish  to  do  wrong  to  do  things  which  to 
many  may  seem  very  wrong.  Let  me  give  first,  in  illustration  two  points  given  to  me  by  two 
very  successful  poultry  salesmen,  one  mentioning  one  point,  the  other  the  other  point. 

A  poultryman  whom  I  was  once  visiting,  discussing  the  matter  of  values  and  prices  of  fowls 
of  different  grades  of  quality,  remarked  that  the  controlling  factor  in  fixing  prices  was  not  the 
actual  or  relative  quality  of  the  birds,  but  the  number  of  people  who  wanted  to  own  expensive 
fowls.  In  illustration  of  his  point  he  told  how  one  day  a  gentleman  and  lady  drove  to  his  farm 
in  a  fine  turnout  and  wanted  to  look  at  poultry.  They  were  much  pleased  with  the  birds  in 
the  first  yard  shown  them,  and  asked  the  price  of  a  trio.  He  mentioned  a  figure  which  prob- 
ably correctly  expressed  the  value  of  the  fowls,  say  $25.  Having  named  the  price  of  these,  he 
observed  that  the  visitors  lost  interest  in  them.  Being  a  shrewd  man  and  experienced  in  the 
ways  of  buyers  of  thoroughbred  poultry,  he  concluded  that  the  price  mentioned  was  too  low. 
So  he  took  them  to  a  pen  a  little  further  along,  and  when  they  asked  the  price  named  a  little 
higher  figure;  still  further,  and  stopping  before  another  pen,  he  priced  what  birds  they  wanted 
from  that  lot  at  seventy-five  dollars,  and  a  sale  was  quickly  made.  "You  see,"  said  he,  "they 
didn't  want  fine  fowls,  they  did  not  know  or  care  anything  about  them.  What  they  wanted 
was  to  have  a  few  fowls  that  they  could  point  out  to  their  friends  as  having  cost  so  much 
money.  The  birds  I  sold  them  at  $75  were  a  little  better  than  those  I  priced  them  at  $25,  but 
not  much.  But  it  would  have  been  a  crime  to  waste  birds  worth  $75  on  people  who  could  not 
appreciate  them,  and  only  wanted  to  pay  money  for  fowls." 


RELATIONS  OF   DLMAND,  QUALITY,  AND  PRICE.  145 

Said  another  man  to  me  one  clay  : — "  The  art  of  celling  thoroughbred  fowls  to  make  a  good 
pro  tit  on  them  consists  in  finding  out  what  a  customer  wants,  and  giving  him  a  fowl  that  will 
answer  his  requirements.  I  have  customers  who  want  fowls  I  could  not  use,  and  would  have* 
difficulty  in  disposing  of  to  others,  and  they  are  willing  to  pay  as  much  for  them  as  for  birds  L 
would  consider  good.  Why  should  I  take  the  position  that  only  the  points  I  and  those  who 
think  as  I  do  prize  make  quality?  It  is  demand  that  makes  prices.  Breeders  often  have  to 
breed  to  standards  they  do  not  like  in  order  to  sell  their  stock.  I  will  sell  a  man  anything  [ 
have  that  will  suit  him,  and  ask  the  highest  price  I  think  I  can  get.  If  I  make  a  mistake,  ami 
the  fowls  do  not  suit  b>m,  I  take  them  back  and  refund  his  money.  If  both  the  fowls  and  the 
price  suit  him,  why  is  not  taut  the  value  of  the  fowls?  You  may  say  he  is  satisfied  because  he 
is  ignorant  of  standard  requirements.  That  is  none  of  my  business.  I  cannot  put  myself  iit 
the  position  of  assuming  that  a  customer  is  ignorant;  I  have  to  take  h'im  at  his  own  estimate  of 
his  knowledge  of  what  he  wants.  How  do  I  know  but  that  he  can  make  good  use  of  birds 
worthless  to  me,  and  not  salable  to  others?  I  hold  that  when  an  order  is  filled  to  the  customer'* 
satisfaction  it  is  filled  right.*'  * 

In  such  bald  statements  or  in  the  extreme  instances  of  their  application  we  see  things  whicln 
most  of  us  unhesitatingly  condemn  as,  at  best,  questionable.  But  the  more  we  consider  then* 
the  more  we  find  that  logically  they  lead  us  back  to  the  question  :  "What  makes  the  value  of 
fancy  poultry?"  and  we  find  it  difficult  to  place  a  boundary  line  between  what  is  and  what  is; 
not  permissible. 

In  practice  the  question  of  values  seems  to  resolve  itself  into  the  question  of  suiting  the 
customer,  while  most  of  the  friction  that  arises  between  buyers  and  oelleis  is  traceable  to> 
errors  in  what  were  really  sincere  efforts  to  please  the  customer. 

Selling    Unsexed    Fowls. 

Occasionally  someone  comes  out  and  charges  a  breeder  with  having  sold  him  "  caponized  '" 
males  or  females.  It  is  not  likely  that  any  breeder  ever  knowingly  or  intentionally  did  this. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  breeders  have  often  shipped  fowls  that  were  sexually  impotent,  and* 
that  in  some  cases  post  mortem  examination  would  show  a  condition  of  the  reproductive 
organs  which  was  abnormal.  Even  In  such  a  case  it  is  not  necessary  to  assume  that  the 
abnormal  condition  of  the  parts  results  from  an  operation,  for  It  may  result  from  disease  of 
the  organs  which  would  not  ordinarily  be  noticed;  but  in  the  case  of  a  fowl  in  which  the 
poultry  man  had  special  interest  might  be  discovered  because  an  effort  would  be  made  to  deter- 
mine what  was  wrong.  It  would  be  the  height  of  folly  for  a  breeder  to  castrate  a  fowl  he 
intended  to  sell  for  breeding,  or  to  sell  a  castrated  fowl  for  that  purpose.  There  is  no  authen- 
tic instance  of  it  known. 

Honesty    the    Best    Policy. 

While  there  are  many  points  upon  which  people  may  differ  as  to  honesty  of  certain  trans- 
actions, I  find  no  reason,  as  my  acquaintance  with  poultrymen  extends  more  and  more,  to- 
change  the  opinion  that,  with  rare  exceptions,  they  intend  to  be  honest.  But  if  one  had  a 
leaning  the  other  way,  he  would  soon  find  that,  as  a  matter  of  business  policy,  he  could  not 
afford  to  have  many  dissatisfied  customers.  Competition  in  the  business  is  keen.  It  cost* 
money  in  advertising  to  get  a  customer.  It  costs  most  breeders  so  much  that  if  they  bad  to> 
depend  on  their  new  customers  they  would  soon  go  out  of  business.  After  the  breeder  has 
once  secured  a  customer  he  hopes  to  have  him  continue  with  him,  and  if  he  does  not  know- 
he  soon  finds  that  while  advertising  may  bring  customers  and  continue  to  interest  them,  what 
holds  the  customer  and  brings  further  orders  is  satisfactory  treatment. 


146  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SLCOND  5LR1L5. 


LESSON      XVIII. 


Winter    Egg    Production, 


MOST  poultry  keepers  waut  to  get  eggs  in  the  early  winter  when  eggs  are  scarce  and 
high   in   price.      The  difference  between  the  fancier    who  says  he  does  not  care 
whether  his  hens  lay  them  or  not,  and  the  poultry  keeper  who  is  greatly  disap- 
pointed if  they  do  not  lay  at  that  time,  is  not  as  great  as  at  first  thought  it  appears 
to  be.    Fanciers,  as  I  find  them,  are  not  so  indifferent  to  egg  production  as  they  sometimes 
profess  to  be.    When  their  hens  do  lay  well  early  in  winter  they  are  as  pleased  and  as  ready 
to  boast  of  it  as  anyone.    When  they  do  not  lay  well  at  that  time  they  console  themselves 
with  the  thought  that  there  are  two  strings  to  their  bow,  and  that  what  they  miss  on  early 
winter  market  eggs  may  be  made  up  to  them  in  the  spring  when  they  can  sell  the  eggs  for 
hatching.    The  poultryman  whose  eggs  are  not  salable  for  hatching  purposes  has  not  another 
period  of  especially  high  prices  to  which  to  look  forward,  hence  his  disappointment  over 
failure  to  get  early  winter  eggs  is  greater,  for  he  knows  that  bis  loss,  if  made  up,  must  be 
made  up  from  the  profits  of  the  remainder  of  the  year  on  sales  at  lower  prices.    His  need  .of 
•winter  eggs  being  greater,  his  desire  to  get  them  is  greater;  he  plans  for  them  and  works  for 
them,  making  it  a  point  to  have  his  stock  ready  to  lay  by  winter  if  possible. 

The  fancier  may  be  indifferent  about  the  laying  of  such  fowls  as  he  intends  to  show,  but 
for  the  rest  of  his  stock  he  would,  as  a  rule,  rather  have  it  laying  than  not  laying.  There  are 
few  fanciers  who  are  indifferent  to  the  receipts  from  market  eggs,  and  fewer  still  who  try  to 
discourage  egg  production  in  any  considerable  part  of  their  flock,  for  fowls  eat  nearly  as 
much  when  not  laying  as  when  laying,  and  it  takes  but  a  small  egg  yield  to  pay  the  feed  bills. 
We  may  say  then  that  the  difference  in  the  attitudes  of  practical  poultrymen  and  fanciers  in 
the  matter  of  winter  egg  production  is  a  difference  in  degree  —  not  in  kind  —  of  interest.  All 
want  as  many  eggs  in  winter  as  they  can  get  —  but  the  intensity  of  desire,  and  of  effort  to  get 
them,  varies  in  a  general  way  between  these  classes  of  poultrymen  and  also  between  individ- 
uals in  either  class.  Perhaps  the  difference  may  be  illustrated-  by  a  remark  a  friend  of  mine 
made  to  me  one  day  at  the  New  York  show.  We  were  talking  of  a  man  well  known  to 
poultrymen  who  has  been  a  marked  success  as  a  money  getter.  Said  he:  "  All  men  want 
m  >ney,  but  some  will  work  harder  to  get  it  than  others,  and  some  will  do  things  for  money 
that  others  would  not.  Now  the'  the  difference  between  you  and  I  and  Blank  in  regard  to 
money  is  this:  If  a  dollar  were  rolling  around  on  the  floor,  you  and  I  would  each  make  a 
grab  at  it  as  it  passed  us,  but  Blank  would  follow  that  dollar,  on  his  hands  and  knees  if 
necessary,  until  be  got  it." 

In  the  ordinary  course  of  events  Blank  will  probably  reach  the  age  at  which  men  retire 
from  active  life— if  they  can— with  many  times  as  much  wealth  as  either  my  friend  or  I.  He 
will  get  more  because  he  cares  more  for  it,  and  will  work  harder  to  get  it.  And  this  principle 
—  or  policy  —  (it  is  something  of  both)  has  a  great  deal  more  to  do  with  the  getting  of  eggs 
in  winter  than  many  would  suppose.  It  has  more  to  do  with  it  than  the  kind  of  fowl,  or  the 
kind  of  food,  or  the  kind  of  house.  Within  reasonable  limitations  it  has  as  much  to  do  with 
it  as  the  period  of  hatching,  the  care  and  attention  the  chicks  get  while  growing,  and  the 
treatment  of  the  hens  at  the  period  when  they  are  or  should  be  laying.  It  is  the  intensity  of 


AS    TO    "SLCRLT5"    IN    EGG   PRODUCTION.  147 

the  wish  to  have  the  hens  laying  in  early  winter,  joined  to  a  fair  appreciation  of  the  means 
of  getting  them  ready  to  lay  in  winter,  that  makes  some  poultrymen  work  for  this  steadily 
and  without  intermission  from  season  to  season.  I  have  never  known  anyone  who  was  so  uni- 
formly successful  in  getting  winter  eggs  that  he  or  she  might  rightly  be  said  to  know  how  to 
"  make  hens  lay,"  but  I  have  known  many  poultry  keepers  who  were  much  more  successful 
than  the  average  poultry  keeper,  and  I  think  that  those  most  successful  in  getting  winter  eggs 
divide  quite  naturally  into  two  classes:  Those  who,  in  connection  with  more  or  less  unneces- 
sary "  fussing"  with  the  fowls,  do  the  things  essential  to  egg  production;  and  those  who  do 
the  essential  things  and  nothing  more.  Poultry  keepers  of  the  first  class  are  likely  to  get  big 
egg  yields  and  make  large  "  per  hen  ''  profits;  those  of  the  second  class  to  make  more  on  their 
labor. 

Essentials    in     Winter    Egg    Production. 

One  of  the  best  poultrymen  I  know,  a  man  who  grew  up  in  the  business,  and  has  been  in  it 
on  his  own  account  since  before  he  was  out  of  his  teens,  once  said  that  the  only  "  secret"  he 
knew  anything  about  in  getting  winter  eggs  was  to  have  the  pullets  ready  to  lay  at  the  begin- 
ning of  winter,  and  then  give  them  enough  to  eat.  The  kind  of  food — within  the  ordinary 
range  of  poultry  foods  —  he  considered  of  little  importance.  Another  good  poultryman  who 
violated  many  of  the  common  rules  of  "  correct"  poultry  keeping,  speaking  only  of  the  hand- 
ling of  hens  in  laying  condition,  said  that  in  his  opinion  the  all  important  points  were  to  give 
the  hens  an  abundance  of  food,  and  to  give  it  regularly.  It  was  said  by  some  poultrymen  who 
knew  him  that  they  knew  of  no  poultryman  who  could  be  away  from  home  so  much  and  yet  get 
good  results — better  than  any  of  those  who  looked  after  their  stock  much  more  closely.  Asked 
about  this,  he  replied  that  it  was  true  that  he  took  time  off  frequently  in  the  middle  of  the 
day.  He  would  not  deny  that  at  such  times  he  "  loafed,"  but  he  stated  a  fact  which  they  had 
not  observed,  when  he  said  that  no  one  ever  saw  him  leave  or  be  away  to  the  neglect  of  his 
stock,  while  various  neighbors  he  mentioned  would  look  carefully  after  their  fowls  for  days  or 
weeks  at  a  time,  and  tben  for  some  reason  or  other  there  would  be  neglect,  perhaps  one  feed 
omitted,  perhaps  the  regular  routine  of  feeding  interrupted  for  one  or  several  days,  and  this 
happening  frequently,  the  hens  did  not  get  their  full  rations  with  the  regularity  essential  to 
egg  production. 

Comparisons  of  the  conditions,  methods,  and  rations  of  poultry  keepers  and  of  the  results 
they  are  getting,  will  clearly  disprove  any  theory  of  breed,  feed,  or  system  of  housing  as 
superior  to  others,  or  as  in  itself  essential  to  or  assuring  results,  for  in  such  comparisons  we 
have  to  consider  all  kinds  of  results.  We  cannot  consider  only  favorable  results  as  advocates 
of  special  theories  or  ideas  in  any  of  these  lines  are  wont  to  do.  Comparisons  such  as  I  have 
just  described  would  not  so  clearly  prove  the  correctness  of  the  ideas  of  abundant  feeding  and 
regularity  as  the  essential  things  in  egg  production,  for  it  is  much  easier  in  such  cases  to  dis- 
prove a  theory  than  to  prove  one,  but  such  comparisons  do  generally  indicate  that  good  feeding 
—heavy  feeding  is  essential  to  continued  large  egg  production,  and  the  reports  and  records  of 
those  who  g  t  large  egg  yields  in  winter  especially  generally  indicate  that  the  fowls  get  regular 
care. 

Conditions  of  Greatest  Egg  Production. 

A  fair  comparison  of  results  in  different  types  of  poultry  houses  will  show  —  I  think  —  the 
greatest  winter  egg  production  in  the  warmest  houses,  provided  the  ventilation  of  these  houses 
is  given  proper  attention.  The  same  comparison  would  show  very  poor  egg  production,  and 
often  a  great  deal  of  sickness  in  flocks  housed  in  this  way.  Investigation  will  generally  show 
that  in  such  cases  the  houses  are  not  properly  ventilated.  The  proper  ventilation  of  warm 
tight  houses  by  the  doors  and  windows  is  a  very  simple  matter — if  the  poultry  keeper  can  open 
and  close  them  as  temperature  conditions  require.  In  theory  this  is  easy  —  nothing  could  be 
easier.  In  general  practice  I  have  found  that  very  few  of  those  who  use  warm  tight  houses 
ventilate  them  properly.  The  common  thing  is  to  find  houses  still  closed  long  after  they  should 
be  open  in  the  morning;  then  —  If  opened  at  all  —  left  open  long  after  they  should  be  closed  in 
the  afternoon.  The  result  of  this  is  that  the  fowls  become  overheated  and  then  chilled. 

The  proper  way  to  ventilate  such  a  house  is  to  open  the  windows,  or  doors,  or  both,  a  little 


148  LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

In  the  morniDg,  wider  toward  noou ;  then  close  partially  as  the  sun  begins  to  get  low,  and 
altogether,  or  as  nearly  so  as  is  cuetomary,  at  dark.  This  for  fair  bright  days.  On  stormy, 
cloudy,  or  windy  days,  the  opening  should  be  adapted  to  conditions.  Here  is  where  the  tight 
house  becomes  a  troublesome  proposition  to  those  who  have  to  be  away  from  the  place  much  of 
the  day,  or  find  it  inconvenient  to  vary  the  time  of  opening  and  closing  doors  and  windows; 
The  day  starts  bright,  and  everything  is  opened,  the  attendant  leaving  not  to  return  until 
toward  night.  A  storm  of  some  kind  comes  up,  and  the  house  becomes  very  uncomfortable 
for  fowls  that  are  tender  to  such  conditions.  Or,  the  opposite  case  occurs.  The  morniug  is 
chilly  and  threatening,  the  houses  are  left  closed.  It  clears,  and  the  sun  comes  out  warm,  and 
the  houses  are  overheated.  It  is  such  conditions  that  baffle  the  poultryman  who  with  a  warm 
house,  hens  fit  to  lay,  and  good  food,  has  to  take  chances  on  the  ventilation  that  is  right  in  the 
morning  being  right  through  the  day. 

If  one  wishes  to  get  the  largest  egg  yield  possible;  if  he  can  look  after  the  ventilation  prop- 
erly ;  and  if  he  is  Indifferent  about  the  usefulness  of  the  hens  after  the  first  winter,  I  would  say, 
by  all  means  use  a  warm  tight  house.  One  is  surer  of  big  egg  yields  In  It.  But  if  there  are 
likely  to  be  occasions  when  the  ventilation  of  such  a  house  would  not  be  given  proper  attention, 
or  if  it  is  desirable  that  the  hens  should  come  through  the  winter  in  good  physical  condition, 
use  a  more  open  house,  and  be  satisfied  with  the  prospect  of  a  more  moderate  egg  yield.  Bear 
in  mind  that  the  kind  of  house  does  not  control  the  egg  yield.  It  is  only  a  factor  —  a  factor 
which  varies  in  value  according  to  other  conditions.  The  warm  house  seems  to  offer  the  great- 
est possibilities  of  heavy  winter  egg  production,  and  at  the  same  time  to  involve  the  greatest 
risks  of  poor  egg  production  and  debilitated  fowls.  It  is  a  forcing  house,  and  the  dangers  as 
well  as  the  advantages  of  forcing  are  in  it. 

The  matter  of  yard  or  range  also  seems  to  have  an  important  bearing  on  egg  production. 
The  largest  egg  yields  are  almost  invariably  made  by  hens  that  are  quite  closely  confined.  The 
common  experience  is  that  as  between  two  equal  lots  of  fowls,  fed  as  nearly  alike  as  possible, 
but  one  confined  quite  closely  and  the  other  given  a  large  yard  or  free  range,  the  hens  that  are 
most  restrained  will  give  the  better  egg  yield,  often  a  very  much  better  yield.  The  most 
reasonable  explanation  of  this  seems  to  be  that  the  closer  confined  hens  utilize  all  their  food  for 
maintenance  and  egg  production,  while  the  others  put  much  of  it  into  energy  expended  in 
running  about.  It  is  also  reasonable  to  suppose  that  hens  at  large  are  more  often  frightened  or 
disturbed,  and  it  is  well  known  that  such  experiences  are  likely  to  have  a  marked  and  imme- 
diate effect  on  egg  production.  Dairymen  know  that  to  get  the  largest  possible  flow  of  milk 
from  their  cows  they  must  be  kept  quiet  and  contented  —  not  disturbed  or  frightened ;  but 
poultrymen  do  not  so  generally  appreciate  the  effects  of  such  things  on  the  functions  of  the- 
fowls. 

Exercise  is  not  always  essential.  By  exercise  here  I  mean  compulsory  exercise,  compelling 
hens  to  exercise  for  much  of  the  food  they  take.  Undoubtedly  many  poultry  keepers  find  that 
their  hens  do  better  when  compelled  to  take  exercise  than  when  fed  all  they  will  eat,  and  taking 
almost  no  exercise;  but  a  great  deal  of  good  laying  is  by  hens  which  take  little  exercise.  If 
hens  have  sound  digestion  and  are  not  overfat  to  start  with,  they  are  likely  to  lay  fully  as  well 
without  much  exercise  during  the  early  part  of  the  winter,  though  as  spring  approaches  they 
may  get  too  fat  or  develop  digestive  troubles.  We  may  say  of  cases  where  exercise  is  found 
necessary  as  (in  a  preceding  lesson)  of  cases  in  which  very  careful  attention  to  diet  is  found 
necessary,  that  these  are  abnormal.  We  may  leave  the  matter  of  exercise  in  this  way  : — Exer- 
cise is  not  always  essential;  when  it  does  appear  to  be  essential  provision  for  regular  exercise 
should  be  made;  it  is  always  advisable  if  it  is  desired  that  the  hens  should  go  through  the 
winter  in  good  condition.  If  they  are  to  be  disposed  of  in  the  spring  it  does  not  make  so  much 
difference  about  exercise. 

Generally  the  most  convenient  and  satisfactory  way  of  providing  exercise  it  by  littering  the- 
floors  and  feeding  the  grain  in  this  litter. 

Winter    Rations  for    Fowls. 

In  this  connection  the  reader  should  refer  to  the  sample  rations  given  in  Lesson  I.,  in  th& 
preceding  series  (1905).  Indeed,  it  would  be  well  to  review  the  entire  subject  of  feeding. 


LAYING    HLN5    HAVL    GOOD    APPLTITL5.  149 

Those  rations  may  be  used  as  given,  or,  if  it  is  desired  to  further  cheapen  the  cost  of  feeding, 
the  proportion  of  corn  and  corn  meal  in  them  may  be  increased,  especially  for  hens  that  are 
evidently  not  overfat,  or  that  are  laying.  After  hens  begin  to  lay  it  is  not  as  necessary  to 
guard  against  overfeeding  and  overfatteuing  as  it  is  with  those  that  are  not  laying.  When  the 
reproductive  organs  are  active  the  tendency  is  for  them  to  take  and  use  all  available  nourish- 
ment. When  the  reproductive  organs  are  not  acting  the  fowl,  as  a  rule,  eats  less,  though  it 
may  still  eat  more  than  is  required  for  maintenance.  When  that  is  the  case  the  surplus  goes  to 
tat.  How  far  such  fat  as  is  accumulated  prevents  laying,  is  a  question  not  yet  satisfactorily 
answered.  I  think  that  there  are  relatively  few  cases  where  the  ovaries  of  the  hen  are  normal 
where  any  ordinary  accumulation  of  fat  prevents  laying.  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  activity  of  the  ovaries,  and  consequent  production  of  eggs,  are  often  retarded  for 
months  after  the  hen  is  otherwise  fully  developed,  and  that  the  reasons  for  this  are  not  easily 
controlled.  When  this  is  the  case  a  hen  is  likely  to  fatten,  but  when  the  ovaries  do  become 
active  —  which  may  be  earlier  in  the  winter,  but  is  more  likely  to  occur  after  midwinter  — 
these  fat  hens  and  pullets  usually  lay  a  few  abnormal  eggs,  and  then  lay  normal  eggs  regularly 
— and  usually  such  hens  after  beginning  are  heavy  layers  for  that  period.  I  speak  of  this 
because  of  the  prevailing  impression  that  slightly  overfat  hens  will  not  lay  —  that  there  is  a 
point  in  physical  condition  that  must  not  be  passed  if  hens  are  to  produce  eggs. 

The  conditions  in  winter  admit  of  more  latitude  in  liberality  of  feeding,  as  well  as  of  the  use 
of  more  of  the  "fattening"  foods.  Whole  corn  may  be  used  quite  freely  during  the  cold 
weather,  but  as  spring  approaches  should  be  fed  with  more  caution,  especially  if  the  fowls 
generally  show  a  tendency  to  become  very  fat,  aud  they  are  to  be  kept  through  the  spring  and 
summer.  Meat  and  bone  may  also  be  fed  more  freely  than  in  warm  weather. 

For  vegetable  food  clover,  alfalfa,  cabbage,  mangels,  and  waste  vegetables  of  nearly  all  kinds 
are  used,  and  there  is  practically  no  danger  of  using  too  much  of  anything  of  this  kind  that  is 
fed  separately  to  fowls  liberally  provided  with  grain. 

Rarity   of    Heavy    Laying    in  November   and    December. 

Novices  in  poultry  keeping  are  quite  generally  under  some  misapprehension  as  to  what  is 
considered  a  good  egg  yield  in  these  months.  While  occasionally  better  yields  are  obtained  9 
yield  of  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent  is  an  unusually  good  yield,  and  a  poultryman  who  is  getting 
as  much  as  a  ten  per  cent  yield  from  his  flock  in  November,  has  no  reason  to  feel  dissatisfied, 
aud  much  reason  to  feel  encouraged.  Those  who  watch  their  flocks  closely  enough  to  get  some 
idea  of  what  individuals  are  doing,  and  of  the  relative  proportions  of  pullets  of  the  same  age 
that  are  laying  and  not  laying  at  this  season  are  likely  to  discover  that  for  most  pullets  the  age 
at  which  they  begin  to  lay  is  greater  than  the  age  usually  given  for  laying  maturity  in  their 
breed,  and  this  knowledge  can  be  turned  to  account  next  se.asou  by  hatching  enough  earlier  to 
have  the  bulk  of  the  stock  come  to  laying  at  the  desired  time,  though  the  earliest  layers  may 
lay  earlier  than  is  desirable. 


150  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  — 5LCOND  SERIES. 


LESSON      XIX. 


First   Treatment   of   Sick    Fowls. 


FOWLS  are  subject  to  a  great  many  diseases.  Quite  all  the  more  common  diseases  of  men 
have  their  counterparts  in  poultry  diseases.  This  fact  is  more  generally  recognized  now 
than  even  a  few  years  ago.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  definitely  established  that  diseases  of 
like  symptoms  are  identical  in  fowls,  animals,  and  human  beings.  In  the  few  cases 
in  which  we  have  reports  of  comparative  studies  of  germ  diseases  of  like  nature  in  fowls  and 
human  beings,  the  conclusion  reached  has  been  that  the  germs  were  not  the  same.  Some 
scientists,  following  the  theory  of  development  by  evolution, suppose  that  as  men,  animals,  and 
fowls  were  originally  of  one  stock,  so  were  the  germs  which  produce  certain  diseases  in  them, 
but  that  many  generations  of  life  in  a  particular  kind  of  organism,  as  a  fowl,  animal,  or  man, 
has  especially  adapted  the  germ  to  development  in  that  organism  and  unfitted  it  for  develop- 
ment in  organisms  of  the  other  classes,  and  that  while  it  is  not  impossible  for  a  disease  to  be 
developed  in  any  organism  as  a  result  of  the  introduction  of  the  peculiar  germ  of  another  class 
of  organisms,  that  result  is  extremely  rare,  and  authorities  are  not  at  all  agreed  on  the  subject. 
The  practical  value  to  the  poultryman  of  a  knowledge  of  this  general  fact  of  the  similarity  of 
human  and  poultry  diseases  is  that  it  gives  him  a  more  reasonable  attitude  toward  the  diseases 
of  poultry,  and  also  enables  him  to  apply  such  knowledge  of  the  treatment  of  human  beings 
presenting  certain  symptoms  as  he  may  have  to  the  treatment  of  similar  symptoms  or  condi- 
tions as  they  appear  in  his  flock.  There  is  no  need  of  any  poultry  keeper,  however  inexperi- 
enced, standing  in  the  presence  of  any  of  the  poultry  diseases  most  likely  to  occur  in  his  flock 
helpless  until  he  can  get  explicit  directions  from  some  poultry  keeper  or  supposed  expert  on 
poultry  diseases  as  to  how  to  treat  such  cases,  unless  he  is  as  inexperienced  in  the  treatment  of 
human  ills  as  in  those  of  poultry.  Very  few  people  who  have  arrived  at  an  age,  whatever  that 
age  may  be  in  any  case,  when  they  can  take  the  small  responsibility  of  caring  for  a  flock  of 
fowls  have  not  some  knowledge  of  the  treatment  of  the  minor  and  more  common  human  ail- 
ments, colds,  indigestion,  diarrhea,  etc.,  for  which  there  are  many  simple  treatments  in  use. 
This  knowledge  can  be  applied  to  the  treatment  of  ailing  fowls,  perhaps  not  always  with  the 
best  results,  but  still  as  much  better  than  doing  nothing  until  specific  directions  can  be  obtained. 
A  sick  person  shows  that  he  is  not  in  good  physical  condition  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  fir>t 
of  all  in  extreme  irritableness  or  in  a  reluctance  to  follow  the  every  day  routine  of  his  life. 
The  mature  person  whose  sense  of  responsibilities  impels  him  to  continue  his  work  when 
nature  honestly  rebels  against  it,  is  apt  to  be  cross.  With  children  unusual  restlessness  or 
unusual  inactivity  occur  according  to  the  nature  of  the  trouble  and  the  disposition  of  the  child. 
With  fowls,  so  much  lower  in  grade  of  organization,  and  comparatively  so  deficient  in  brain 
and  nerve  force  disease  almost  invariably  means  inactivity,  separation  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  remainder  of  the  flock,  and  a  general  attitude  of  listlessness  or  distress.  Occasionally 
instances  of  the  other  manifestation  of  ill  condition  are  seen,  but  they  are  rare. 

Now  the  first  step  in  the  treatment  of  any  trouble  that  has  reached  the  stage  where  the 
fowl  shows  a  desire  for  quiet  and  seclusion,  is  to  furnish  those  conditions.  It  may  be  noted, 
further,  that  fowls — (I  will  not  continue  the  comparison  between  fowls  and  humans,  for  as  I 
proceed  discussing  the  case  for  fowls,  the  reader  whose  attention  has  now  been  fixed  on  the 


TREATING  DI5TLMPLR5  AND  COLDS.  151 

point  will  observe  for  himself  bow  like  human  beings  fowls  are  in  these  matters) — it  will  be 
noted  that  fowls  in  this  condition  try  to  find  a  comfortable  place.  The  most  comfortable 
place  that  affords  quiet  and  seclusion,  or  as  much  of  them  as  can  be  obtained  in  their  quar- 
ters, is  the  place  they  take.  Too  often  the  poultry  house  and  yard  afford  no  suitable  place  for 
the  fowl  that  is  not  fit  to  rough  it  with  its  companions.  Especially  is  this  the  case  when 
houses  are  stocked  to  their  full  capacity,  and  yards'are  small.  Then  it  is  often  pitiful  to  see 
a  sick  chicken  knocked  about  and  run  over  by  the  rest  of  the  flock,  and  thus  deprived  not 
only  of  the  quiet  it  seeks,  but  of  the  strength  it  needs  to  concentrate  on  nature's  effort  to 
restore  health.  The  natural  tendency  of  the  organization  to  recover  its  balance  when  weak- 
ened at  any  point,  or  in  any  function,  is  after  all  the  most  important  factor  in  the  treatment 
of  poultry  diseases,  and  be  doctors  best  whose  first  step  is  to  place  the  fowl  in  conditions 
where  nature  has  a  chance  to  begin  the  work  of  recuperation. 

Take  the  ailing  fowl  away  from  the  others,  see  that  it  has  an  opportunity  to  rest.  Make 
it  comfortable,  remembering  that  what  conditions  will  be  comfortable  for  it  depends  some- 
what on  the  nature  of  the  trouble. 

A  fowl  that  is  weak  and  debilitated  by  indigestion  and  diarrhea,  and  has  a  low  fever,  with 
symptoms  of  alternate  chills  and  fever,  will  be  most  comfortable  in  a  warm  dry  place.  So 
will  a  fowl  that  seems  to  have  poor  ci'rculation,  that  acts  sluggishly,  and  the  comb  tends  to 
turn  dark. 

A  fowl  that  has  a  cold  with  collection  of  phlegm  and  mucus  in  the  throat  and  nostrils,  and 
discharges  from  the  head,  needs  more  than  anything  else,  pure  fresh  air.  It  would  be  foolish, 
as  it  is  unnecessary,  to  expose  such  a  fowl  to  severe  weather  to  give  it  fresh  air,  but  it  will 
generally  be  found  that  such  fowls  are  benefited  rather  than  injured  by  a  degree  of  exposure 
much  greater  than  most  poultrymen  think  advisable  for  their  poultry  as  a  regular  thing. 
Probably  the  best  place  for  such  patients  is  in  an  open  coop  in  a  sheltered  spot. 

Lame  fowls  should  be  put  where  they  will  be  warm  and  dry.  It  is  often  difficult  to  deter- 
mine the  cause  of  lameness.  Rheumatism  is  a  frequent  cause.  With  laying  liens  a  strain 
when  extruding  the  egg  often  results  in  a  temporary  or  partial  paralysis,  which  may  dis- 
appear within  a  few  hours,  or,  at  most,  a  few  days,  if  nature  is  given  full  opportunity  to  per- 
form the  work  of  recuperation.  In  all  sorts  of  cases  of  lameness  in  hens  in  flocks  in  which 
there  are  males,  it  is  especially  necessary  to  remove  the  hen  from  the  pen,  for  whether  it  is 
that  the  unusual  attitude  of  the  hen  attracts  his  attention,  or  from  some  other  caus-e,  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  a  male  forces  his  attentions  on  a  sick  hen  in  his  flock  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  completely  exhaust  the  strength  of  the  hen.  Even  when  the  trouble  is  not  so  serious 
the  recovery  of  ailing  hens  will  always  be  more  sure  and  rapid  if  it  is  impossible  for  the 
male  to  annoy  them.  For  this  reason  it  is  advisable  in  cases  of  general  indisposition  in  a 
flock,  when  all  hens  may  be  somewhat  affected,  though  not  enough  to  require  isolation  for 
all,  to  remove  the  male,  when  the  hens  will  get  along  very  well. 

A  point  worth  noting  is  the  tendency,  under  certain  climatic  conditions,  for  fowls,  animals, 
and  people  to  have  similar  distempers  in  epidemic  form.  Conditions  which  result  in  many 
cases  of  a  disease  like  "grip"  or  pneumonia  among  the  people  of  a  community  are  almost 
invariably  accompanied  by  similar  diseases  in  epidemic  form  among  the  fowls.  Observing 
this,  the  poultryman  will  find  it  quite  safe  to  treat  the  fowls  for  the  same  trouble  for  which 
the  people  are  taking  treatment.  When  medical  treatment  is  to  be  given  in  such  cases,  give 
an  ordinary  full  grown  fowl  the  usual  dose  for  a  child  of  two  or  three  years  of  age. 

In  applying  external  treatment  for  such  troubles  as  colds  people  give  hot  foot  baths,  some- 
times giving  the  whole  body  a  hot  bath  or  a  sponging  with  hot  water,  then  rubbing  with 
lard  or  vaseline,  or  a  mixture  of  such  substances  with  turpentine  or  camphor,  or  both,  or  with 
a  little  carbolic  acid.  Such  applications  are  very  effective  with  fowls,  though  the  mode  of 
application  must  be  varied.  Instead  of  treating  the  feet  and  body  of  the  fowl  we  steam  and 
bathe  the  head,  throat,  and  nostrils,  then  anoint  with  mixtures  described. 

When  fowls  are  found  with  the  face  slightly  puffed,  or  the  eyes  closed,  and  the  lids 
gummed  together  try  steaming  with  hot  water  and  carbolic  acid,  (2  parts  acid  to  100  parts 
water)  then  rubbing  with  lard  and  carbolic  acid  in  about  the  same  proportions.  Do  this  at 
intervals  of  two  or  three  hours  for  a  day,  and  in  nearly  every  case  taken  in  the  early  stages 


152  LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

recovery  will  be  immediate.  Keep  the  fowl  quiet  atul  comfortable  for  a  day  or  two  before 
returning  to  the  pen.  Meantime  try  to  determine  whether  there  was  any  special  reason  in 
the  conditions  in  that  pen  for  a  fowl  to  take  cold  that  way,  and  if  found,  correct  the  trouble. 
Fowls  with  diarrhea  may  be  given  a  purgative  if  treatment  is  undertaken  while  the  fowls, 
though  somewhat  distressed,  are  quite  active,  and  eat  and  move  about  quite  freely.  But  if 
the  diarrhea  has  evidently  greatly  weakened  the  fowl  it  is  better  to  check  it  promptly  and  to 
give  a  stimulant  as  well.  For  any  of  these  purposes  treat  a  fowl  as  you  would  a  child  of  the 
age  specified  above,  and  you  cannot  go  far  wrong. 

For  a  fowl  that  is  crop  bound,  or  that  has  the  crop  filled  with  gas  and  fluid  as  a  result 
of  disorders  of  the  stomach,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  relieve  the  condition  of  the  crop.  It  is 
in  connection  with  such  simple  operations  as  these  that  the  personality  and  deftness  of  the 
operator  become  factors.  Some  people  are  so  rough  in  handling  the  patient,  or  bungle  the 
operation  so  that  the  general  condition  of  the  fowl  after  relief  Is  worse  than  before.  Others 
will,  \vithoutspecialinstructionor  experience,  quickly  and  neatly  do  what  is  *o  be  done.  If 
one  finds  he  is  bungling  such  an  operation  badly  he  had  better  let  it  alone,  and  kill  the  fowl 
if  the  case  seems  too  serious  to  be  likely  to  recover  without  treatment. 

Of  what  may  be  called  minor  ailments  of  poultry,  I  have  found  nothing  so  hard  to  deal 
•with  as  the  sweating  and  exhaustion  that  come  from  overcrowding  young  chickens  in  brood- 
«rs  or  roosting  coops.  In  these  cases  we  have  a  combination  of  severe  conditions  continued 
for  hours  after  the  chicken  has  begun  to  be  seriously  affected  by  them.  Either  the  crowding, 
or  the  overheating,  or  the  partial  smothering  alone,  if  continued  through  the  greater  part  of 
a  night,  would  have  very  bad  results.  When  the  three  are  combined,  and  some  chicks  killed 
<during  the  process,  it  is  not  strange  that  many  of  the  survivors  are  so  weak  and  exhausted 
that  the  system  is  very  slow  to  begin  to  recuperate.  How  far  very  careful  feeding,  nursing, 
?md  care  to  see  that  each  chicken  was  comfortable  at  night,  would  be  successful  in  such  cases, 
I  do  not  know.  With  such  attention  as  it  is  profitable  to  give  ordinary  chickens,  those  that 
Jiave  gone  through  an  experience  of  this  kind  show  the  effects  of  it  for  months,  or  even  all 
through  their  lives.  This  may  not  be  observed  if  there  is  not  another  flock  at  hand  with  which 
to  compare  them,  but  when  a  poultryman's  own  stock  furnishes  opportunities  for  such  com- 
parisons he  can  hardly  fail  to  notice  it.  My  experience  has  been  that,  though  some  of  them 
•may  turn  out  all  right,  on  the  whole  it  is  more  profitable  to  kill  every  chick  in  a  lot  that  has 
Miffered  conspicuously  from  such  conditions  than  to  keep  them  for  the  sake  of  the  few  that 
anay  turn  out  well. 

In  cases  of  indisposition  which  might  be  due  to  food  taken  or  som3  irritant  substance  taken 
•with  food,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  confine  the  fowls  for  a  time  where  it  is  certain  that  they 
<can  get  nothing  but  what  the  keeper  gives  them,  and  then  feed  only  foods  known  to  be  pure 
*md  of  good  quality  until  the  cause  of  the  trouble  has  been  discovered.  Thus  if  a  mixture  of 
ground  feed  stuffs  has  been  used,  that  is,  an  article  sold  in  mixture,  and  there  is  any  sus- 
picion that  something  in  it  might  be  responsible  for  some  trouble  that  has  developed,  discon- 
tinue its  use,  and  feed  only  whole  or  cracked  grains,  or  mashes  made  on  the  premises  of  known 
ingredients  of  good  quality.  In  most  cases  of  this  kind  careful  feeding  alone  will  soon  bring 
the  fowls  back  to  health.  I  doubt  whether  it  ever  pays  to  do  anything  more  than  this  for  them. 
"In  all  such  cases  one  should  do  all  that  can  be  done  to  learn  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  If  it  is  in 
the  mixture  of  food  used,  discontinue  that  article,  but  be  reasonably  sure  first  that  it  is  in  that 
"food.  The  trouble  may  be  due  to  irregularity  in  feeding,  and  all  that  is  necessary  to  do  for  it 
is  to  l>e  regular  in  feeding  and  let  nature  work  the  cure.  No  change  of  food  may  be  necessary 
— ju>t  regulation. 

For  mild  attacks  of  indigestion  accurring  when  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  the  trouble  is 
<lue  to  the  quality  of  food,  there  is  nothing  better  —  nothing  so  good,  in  fact, —  as  fasting,  letting 
tihe  fowls  go  without  food,  except  green  food,  for  one  or  two  days  then  feeding  sparingly.  In 
'.highly  fed  hens  the  digestive  system  is  often  overworked.  A  system  of  feeding  and  quantity  of 
:food  that  one  hen  or  one  flock  stands  all  right  may  be  too  much  for  another.  The  poultry 
ikeeper  has  to  judge  of  what  and  how  to  feed,  not  by  someone  else's  results,  but  by  results  in 
.bis  own  yards.  To  get  good  growth  and  heavy  egg  production  we  must  feed  heavily,  and  in 
deeding  heavily  we  are  always  running  risks  of  breaking  down  the  digestive  system  by  over- 


I 

THE  VALUE.  OF  FASTING.  153 

work.  So  the  poullryman  should  watch  closely  for  signs  of  indigestion,  especially  lack  of 
appetite  or  looseness  of  the  bowels,  and  when  such  symptoms  appear  let  the  hens  go  without 
grain  for  a  feed  or  several  feeds,  as  the  case  may  seem  to  require.  Careful  attention  to  this 
poiut  is  the  best  preventive  of  digestive  disorders.  I  have  found  it  a  good  plan  to  omit  one 
feed  a  week  as  a  regular  thing,  and  for  many  years  have  made  it  a  practice  to  give  the  fowls 
one  less  feed  on  Sunday. 

Another  point  of  importance  in  the  treatment  of  ailing  fowls  is  to  know  when  to  let  them 
alone  — when  to  do  nothing  further  than  to  put  them  in  a  quiet  comfortable  place,  and  let 
nature  take  its  course.  As  an  economical  question  I  think  that  the  poultry  keeper  who  is 
wisest  will  adopt  this  sort  of  let  alone  treatment  as  his  general  policy,  making  exceptions  only 
in  the  case  of  a  fowl  of  unusual  importance  to  him,  or  in  cases  where  he  feels  sure  a  few  very 
simple  treatments  will  suffice.  But  apart  from  the  economical  question  there  is  the  question  of 
when  letting  alone  will  be  the  best  treatment  for  the  fowl.  This  can  only  be  determined  by 
experience  and  experiment.  When  a  number  of  fowls  are  sick  at  the  same  time,  and  with  the 
same  trouble,  try  treating  a  part  and  leaving  the  rest  to  recover  if  nature  Is  able  to  work  a 
recovery.  You  will  be  surprised  to  find  how  often  the  fowls  that  have  no  treatment  recover 
just  as  quickly  as  the  others. 

Whenever  a  poultryman  finds  things  going  wrong  In,  his  flock,  with  no  special  cause  for  tt 
that  he  can  discover,  he  should  sit  down  and  consider  whether  there  is  anything  In  his  situation 
or  his  methods,  or  any  special  condition  existing,  not  in  accordance  with  generally  accepted 
ideas  of  correct  conditions  and  methods,  and  whether  any  possible  connection  can  be  traced 
between  his  departure  fr,om  usual  things  and  the  trouble  that  has  arisen.  In  a  majority  of 
instances  it  will  be  found  that  the  common  practice  of  poultrymen  is  the  safest  to  follow. 


154  LL55ON5  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SLCOND  5ERILS. 


LESSON     XX. 


Poultrymen's    Organizations. 


IN  concluding  this  series  of  lessons,  and  leaving  for  the  present  the  method  of  treatment 
which'  in  general  has  been  pursued  in  the  lessons  of  the  past  two  years,  I  take  the  liberty 
of  departing  in  a  way  from  the  method  of  selection  of  topics  which  I  have  heretofore  tried 
to  follow.    The  subjects  treated  in  the  forty  lessons  of  the  two  series  have  been  chosen 
because  of  the  evident  Interest  of  poultrymen  in  them,  and  as  far  as  circumstances  permitted 
have  been  presented  at  times  when  they  were  mo^t  appropriate.    The  subject  of  this  lesson  is 
one  in  which  too  few  poultrymen  are  interested,  and  most  of  those  who  are  interested  too  little 
Interested.    The  weakest  point  In  the  development  of  American  poultry  culture  today  is  the 
lack  of  adequate  organization  of  poultry  interests  and  the  almost  universal  indifference  of  poul- 
trymen on  the  question  of  organization.    True,  conditions  in  this  respect  are  improving  some- 
what, but  unless  the  rate  of  improvement  is  greatly  increased  this  generation  of  poultrymen 
will  hardly  begin  to  reap  the  advantages  that  must  come  to  all  when  our  poultry  interests  are 
efficiently  organized. 
We  have  in  this  country  today  these  several  kinds  of  organizations  of  poultrymen :— 

1.— The  American  Poultry  Association,  a  general  organization  in  that  it  draws  ita 
membership  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  but  so  constituted 
that  only  a  very  few  members  can  have  any  continuous  activity  in  shaping  its 
policies  or  directing  its  efforts.  Poultrymen  who  are  not  fanciers  rarely  interest 
themselves  at  all  in  this  association,  and  the  average  fancier  is  indifferent  to  it 
except  when  its  existence  is  forced  upon  his  attention  by  some  inconvenience 
imposed  upon  him  as  a  result  of  its  manipulation  of  the  standard  descriptions  of 
thoroughbred  fowls. 

2. — Various  "  state  "  poultry  associations  —  a  few  of  them  properly  so  designated,  but 
more  of  them  merely  local  associations  describing  themselves  as  state  associations 
either  for  the  prestige  the  name  may  give  them,  or  for  the  appropriation  which 
may  sometimes  be  secured  from  a  state  legislature  for  a  state  association,  or  one 
supposed  to  be  of  that  class. 

3. — A  few  sectional  organizations,  leagues  of  local  associations;  as  yet  none  of  these  can 
be  said  to  be  completely  organized  and  on  an  established  working  basis.  So  far 
they  represent  tendencies  rather  than  actual  accomplishments. 

4. — Local  poultry  associations,  organized  primarily  to  hold  a  local  poultry  show  and 
increase  the  local  interest  in  fine  fowls.  Of  these  there  must  be  now  more  than 
400.  The  number  is  steadily  increasing,  and  where  a  few  years  ago  it  was  hard  to 
find  associations  of  this  class  that  had  been  in  active  existence  for  more  than  two 
or  three  consecutive  years,  each  season  now  adds  substantially  to  the  number 
which  have  had  a  continuous  existence  long  enough  to  be  regarded  as  permanent 
>.  organizations. 


POULTRYME.N    NOT    ENOUGH    INTLRL5TLD.  155 

5. — Local  poultry  associations  organized  for  instruction  and  information  and  exchange 
of  ideas  on  poultry  topics.  Of  these  there  are  only  a  very  few  in  existence.  A 
few  local  associations  organized  primarily  to  hold  shows  also  hold  a  number  of 
meetings  of  an  educational  character  during  the  year. 

6.— Specialty  clubs  —  organizations  of  breeders  of  a  particular  breed  or  variety;  the 
object  of  tbe  organization  being  to  advance  the  interest  of  that  breed  or  variety. 
These  clubs  generally  draw  membership  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  though  in  a 
few  instances  where  interest  in  the  breed  or  variety  to  which  the  club  was  devoted 
was  strong  in  some  locality  or  section,  the  local  members  dominated  the  club.  In 
such  cases  the  government  of  the  club  is  likely  to  be  very  democratic,  the  members 
generally  attending  the  meetings  and  taking  part  in  them,  but  the  specialty  club 
usually  is  an  organization  of  which  the  secretary  is  during  the  period  of  his  incum- 
bency the  autocrat. 

Most  readers  will  agree  with  me  that  the  above  enumeration  shows  variety  enough  in  organ- 
ization. As  to  the  numerical  strength  of  these  organizations,  it  varies  from  less  than  ten  to- 
over  a  thousand. 

But  with  all  these  organizations  it  happens  almost  invariably  that  when  the  occasion  arisetf 
for  organized  effort  on  the  part  of  poultrymen,  either  to  advance  or  to  protect  their  interests, 
there  is  no  organization  in  the  field  so  constituted  that  it  can  make  its  influence  felt  and  it* 
power  respected  by  legislatures  and  corporations.  The  estimates  of  the  value  of  poultry  prod- 
ucts which  make  them  outrank  many  crops  commonly  considered  as  of  greater  importance  are 
doubtless  often  exaggerated.  But  allowing  a  great  deal  for  exaggeration,  it  still  remains  a  fact 
that  the  value  of  our  poultry  products  ranges  well  into  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  annually, 
and  far  exceeds  the  value  of  articles  whose  producers  by  combined  and  persistent  effort  are 
able  to  force  a  consideration  of  their  interests  on  those  responsible  for  state  and  national  legis- 
lation. Why  is  it? 

My  answer  is: — Because  most  poultrymen  are  too  absorbed  in  the  details  of  most  intimate 
concern  to  them  to  have  more  than  an  occasional  passing  thought  for  the  larger  matters 
which  should  be  of  interest  to  all  poultrymen;  because  poultry  keeping  being  with  most 
poultry  keepers  a  side  issue,  the  individual  poultr} man's  financial  dependence  upon  it  is  not 
great  enough  to  strongly  impel  him  to  unite  with  others  for  the  remedy  of  conditions  that 
need  improving;  and  because  poultry  keeping  as  a  hobby,  fad,  or  recreation  draws  its  recruits 
largely  from  people  of  very  modest  means  who  have  neither  the  money  nor  the  inclination  to 
make  it  as  conspicuous,  and  their  wishes  or  interests  as  much  regarded  by  the  rest  of  the 
people  as  some  of  the  other  forms  of  recreation.  In  fact,  the  average  poultryman's  dis- 
position is  quiet  and  retiring.  The  push  and  rush  and  noise  of  strenuous  and  spectacular 
sports  do  not  draw  him  as  do  the  quiet  interest  and  occupation  he  finds  in  taking  care  of  and 
developing  his  fowls.  He  may  be  and  often  is  somewhat  interested  in  popular  sports,  but 
rarely  follows  them  with  the  zeal  of  their  more  pronounced  devotees.  A  little  of  them  will 
do  for  him;  then  back  to  the  quiet,  restful  recreation  he  finds  in  poultry  keeping. 

Now,  in  poultry  organizations,  as  in  all  associations,  differences  of  opinion  and  of  interest 
promote  jealousies,  disagreements,  and  divisions.  The  average  poultryman  would  rather  keep 
out  of  these,  or  drop  out  of  the  association  in  which  they  arise,  than  stay  in  and  endeavor  to 
work  out  a  harmonious  solution  of  the  difficulty.  The  result  is  that  dissension  in  a  poultry 
organization  usually  results  in  its  collapse,  or,  at  least,  in  greatly  weakening  it,  when  if  the 
members  felt  the  importance  to  them  of  maintaining  an  organization  dissensions  would  not 
so  often  be  allowed  to  develop  to  the  breaking  point. 

It  may  not  be  possible  by  presenting  reasons  for  faults  like  this  to  persuade  people  to  avoid 
them,  but  if  such  a  statement  of  the  causes  of  weakness  in  poultry  organizations  impresses 
the  reader  as  true  or  reasonable  it  may  serve  to  make  his  attitude  in  such  matters  more  favor- 
able to  adjustment.  To  return  to  our  subject  proper : 

These  various  poultry  organizations  all  have  claims  on  the  attention  of  poultrymen  when 
they  solicit  membership.  As  a  general  rule:  Every  poultryman  ought  to  be  associated  with 
every  organization  which  he  can  help,  or  which  can  be  of  help  to  him.  But  in  the  present 


156  LESSONS  IN  POULTRY  KEEPING  —  SECOND  SERIES. 

condition  of  organizations  many  of  us  have  to  make  exceptions  to  that  rule,  especially  with 
regard  to  those  organizations  which  draw  membership  from  a  wide  territory,  and  still  are  con- 
trolled by  a  very  few  individuals. 

In.respect  to  what  one  ought  to  do  In  the  present  condition  of  poultry  organizations,  there 
Is  abundance  of  room  for  honest  differences  of  opinion,  but  we  find  general  unanimity  in  the 
view  that  every  poultryman  ought  to  belong  to  the  local  association  in  his  town  or  district 
where  such  association  exists.  Even  poultrymen  who  neglect  to  join  their  local  association 
will  usually  admit  that  they  think  they  ought  to  do  so. 

The  local  poultry  association  should  be  the  unit  of  organization.  No  satisfactory  general 
•organization  Is  likely  to  become  established  until  poultrymen  more  generally  appreciate  the 
Importance  of  maintaining  a  harmonious  local  organization,  and  the  equal  importance  of  alli- 
ance with  other  local  organizations.  Appreciation  of  these  things  is  growing — but  slowly. 

The  too  common  experience  of  local  poultry  associations  is  that  within  a  year  or  two  from 
a  most  auspicious  beginning  jealousies  and  disagreements  reach  the  point  where  either  the 
association  divides,  or  a  larger  part  of  the  members  withdraw.  For  this  the  members  indi- 
vidually are  to  blame,  perhaps  not  all  in  equal  measure,  but  it  is  rare  to  meet  in  such  cases 
manifestations  of  the  spirit  of  compromise  which  must  exist  in  any  organization  which  is  to 
be  permanent  and  efficient. 

To  this  spirit  every  member  can  contribute.  For  the  lack  of  it  each  member  is  responsible 
—  for  his  share.  There  may  be  occasional  cases  where  division  or  withdrawals  are  justifiable 
or  inevitable,  but  to  the  impartial  outside  view  such  emergencies  rarely  exist,  and  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases,  if  the  ^poultrymen  who  desire  only  harmony  would  work  together  in  the 
interests  of  harmony,  and  not  side  with  either  one  or  the  other  of  the  opposing  factions,  but 
discipline  both  if  necessary  to  bring  about  a  satisfactory  adjustment  of  the  situation,  its  troubles 
would  be  short  lived.  And  if,  as  a  result  of  the  common  efforts  of  members  of  poultry  asso- 
ciations who  have  no  personal  interest  in  the  disputes  which*  disrupt  them,  local  poultry  asso- 
ciations were  made  strong  and  permanent,  as  they  should  be;  it  would  inevitably  come  about 
that  these  organizations  would  combine  for  the  things  that  could  be  better  accomplished  or 
regulated  through  their  combined  efforts.  While  the  tenure  of  life  of  the  local  association  is 
as  uncertain  as  it  has  been  in  times  past,  or  even  as  it  is  today,  that  condition  gives  some 
warrant  for  the  statement  often  made  in  defense  of  the  autocratic  and  unpopular  methods  of 
some  of  the  organizations  of  wider  scope,  that  the  lack  of  permanence  in  local  organizations 
justifies  the  continuance  of  general  organizations  by  methods  constantly  requiring  the  services 
of  apologists  and  defenders.  The  uncertainty  of  continuance  of  local  organizations  also  makes 
many  of  them  reluctant  to  enter  into  league  with  others,  and  sometimes  interferes  seriously 
with  the  efforts  to  extend  organization. 

The  individual  poultryman  who  does  interest  himself  in  the  matter,  usually  feels  that  he 
personally  can  do  nothing  to  materially  improve  conditions  affecting  organizations  of  poul- 
trymen, or  that  what  he  perhaps  might  do,  he  may  not  undertake  because  to  do  so  would 
take  time  and  attention  which  should  be  devoted  to  the  occupation  by  which  he  makes  his 
living.  But  what  no  one  poultryman  could  do  individually  without  a  supreme  effort,  many 
individual  poultrymen  acting  independently,  though  impelled  by  the  same  spirit,  would  accom- 
plish easily,  and  if  all  poultrymen  would  interest  themselves  in  their  local  associations,  help 
those  who  are  willing  to  bear  the  burden  of  the  work  of  the  association  as  long  as  their  efforts 
are  for  the  common  good,  and  suppress  those  eager  to  take  the  lead  when  their  efforts  seem  to 
be  directed  toward  promoting  their  own  interests  or  toward  things  of  no  value  to  the  mem- 
bers, we  would  soon  see  far  more  healthy  and  vigorous  life  in  local  poultry  associations,  and 
a  much  more  general  intelligent  interest  in  the  constitutions  and  methods  of  the  organizations 
of  wider  scope. 

Beyond  membership  in  local  poultry  associations  I  would  not  under  present  conditions  insist 
on  membership  in  any  of  them  as  a  duty,  for  in  them  the  individual  member  neither  is,  nor  as 
they  are  at  present,  can  be  a  factor  as  he  may  be  in  the  local  poultry  association.  In  any  of 
them  a  member  may  find  or  make  opportunities  to  help  along  the  cause  of  organization,  but  in 
the  local  association  every  man  counts  as  nowhere  else,  and  it  is  in  the  local  associations  that 
the  foundations  of  a  great  and  efficient  poultry  organization  must  be  laid. 


SOME   THINGS    THAT    MIGHT    BE    DONE.  157 

So  in  concluding  this  series  of  lessons  I  would  like  to  say  to  all  who  have  followed  them,  and 
especially  to  the  many  who  have  testified  to  the  help  they  have  found  in  them  in  such  matters 
as  feeding,  building,  breeding,  etc.,  this  question  of  an  efficient  organization  of  poultry  interests 
is  of  as  much  importance  to  the  poultryman  —  the  one  who  stays  a  poultryman,  as  any  subject 
in  which  poultrymen  are  interested. 

In  the  course  of  these  lessons  I  have  at  times  imposed  my  opinions  on  readers.  I  have  said 
of  one  thing  and  another:  Take  my  word  for  this;  or  try  this,  and  be  convinced.  As  unhesi- 
tatingly I  now  urge  on  the  reader  who  has  not  interested  himself  in  organization,  or  has  allowed 
his  interest  to  lapse  : —  Interest  yourself  in  and  for  a  poultry  organization  in  your  locality.  If 
there  is  one  there  already  go  into  it  and  help  and  be  helped.  If  there  is  none,  organize  one. 
Get  together  the  few  (there  are  always  —  nearly  always  —  a  few)  interested  in  poultry,  and 
have  monthly  meetings  to  exchange  ideas.  Thus  you  establish  a  nucleus  about  which  local 
interest  in  poultry  grows.  Even  the  man  or  woman  who  is  isolated  in  his  interest  in  poultry 
has  hope  of  companionship,  for  that  interest  is  everywhere  contagious. 

Out  of  efficiency  and  permanence  In  local  organization  comes  the  power  to  protect  poultry 
interests  locally.  This  means  a  great  deal  in  such  u  matter,  as,  for  Instance,  a  city  ordinance 
prohibiting  the  keeping  of  fowls  within  the  city  limits.  Usually  a  move  to  enact  such  an  ordi- 
nance finds  poultry  keepers  unorganized  and  unable  to  make  any  effective  protest.  Ordinances 
of  this  character  are  usually  too  rigid,  arbitrary,  and  oppressive.  There  may  be — there  usually 
is  —  need  of  some  regulation,  but  the  entire  prohibition  of  fowls  within  the  city  limits  is  not 
necessary,  and  if  poultry  keepers  are  organized  and  in  position  to  make  their  rights  respected 
they  can  secure  such  modification  of  a  proposed  ordinance  as  is  desirable  and  fair. 

As  an  illustration  of  what  might  be  accomplished  by  concert  of  action  by  the  local  associa- 
tions within  a  state,  take  the  case  of  the  proposed  fox  bounty  law  in  Massachusetts  a  few  years 
ago.  This  was  a  law  to  protect  those  engaged  in  an  important  industry.  It  was  opposed  by 
the  fox  hunters,  who  acted  in  concert,  while  the  poultrymen  did  not.  The  result  is  that  foxes 
flourish  here  increasingly. 

As  an  illustration  of  what  might  be  done  by  a  powerful  national  organization,  take  the  matter 
of  express  rates  and  regulations  in  regard  to  the  transportation  of  fine  fowls.  Rates  are 
unequal  and  often  unfair,  regulations  mostly  in  the  interest  of  the  carrier,  and  to  take  away  as 
far  as  possible  protection  to  the  shipper  or  purchaser.  The  express  companies  make  and 
unmake  rates  and  rules  at  will.  Poultrymen  find  fault,  protest  ineffectively,  and  submit, 
because  there  is  no  collective  force  behind  their  protests. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  things  that  go  wrong  for  lack  of  strong  organizations  of  poultry- 
men,  most  of  which  would  be  righted  with  comparative  ease  if  taken  in  hand  by  an  organiza- 
tion having  the  united  support  of  those  whose  interests  were  affected. 

These  matters  may  not  obtrude  themselves  constantly  on  the  poultryman  as  do  those  which 
we  call  the  practical  details  of  the  business,  but  they  are  none  the  less  vital.  They  can  be 
dealt  with  only  by  concerted  action,  but  concerted  action  can  come  only  as  individual  poultry- 
HMD  unite  to  make  it.  The  responsibility  is  on  everyone. 


158 


LLS5ON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLP1NG— SLCOND  5LRIL5. 


INDEX. 


Abbreviatious,  125. 

Abdomen,  development  of,  118. 

Accommodations  for  turkeys,  44. 

African  geese,  85. 

American  class,  88. 

American  Poultry  Association,  154. 

Artificial  hatching  of  goslings,  39. 

Art  in  poultry  culture, 60. 

Asiatic  class,  94. 

Asiatic  fowls,8S. 

Back,  shape  of ,  118. 

Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  88,  91. 

Bedding  for  ducks,  28. 

Black  turkeys,  44. 

Body,  shape  of,  117. 

Borrowing  birds,  135. 

Boughten  eggs,  143. 

Brahmas,  88. 

Breeding  geese,  care  of,  38. 

Breeds,  how  many,  96. 

Breeds  of  geese,  35. 

Bronze  turkeys,  43. 

Brooding  ducklings,  29. 

Brown  Leghorns,  93. 

Buff  Leghorns,  93. 

Buff  Orpingtons,  93. 

Buff  Plymouth  Kocks,  91. 

Buff  turkeys, 44. 

Building  for  ducks,  25. 

Business  ability,  56. 

Buying  exhibition  birds,  135. 

Buying  stock,  98. 

Care  of  breeding  geese,  38. 
Carriage,  118. 
Catching  turkeys,  51. 
Chance  in  poultry  keeping,  104. 
Chart,  Felch's  breeding,  11. 
China  geese,  35. 
Chloro-Naptholeum,  107. 
Cleanliness  in  duck  culture,  32. 
Climate,  effect  of  change  of,  19.    . 
Cochins,  88. 
Colds,  151. 
Color,  122. 

Combs,  shapes  of  119. 
Condition  natural,  133. 
Continuous  house,  location  of,  84. 
Cooked  food  for  ducks,  28. 


Cost  of  geese,  37. 

Craugle's  rations  for  turkeys,  48. 

Cross  bred  fowls,  86. 

Curtiss  Bros.'  rations  for  ducks,  28, 31. 

Curtiss'  ration  for  turkeys,  48. 

Cushman's  opinion  of  breeds  of  geese,  35. 

Cushman's  rations  for  turkeys,  49. 

Dalton's  law,  8. 

Darwinian  theory  of  inbreeding,  6. 

Debilitated  fowls,  151. 

Diarrhea,  152. 

"Doctoring"  eggs  for  hatching,  141. 

Dominant  characters,  20. 

Dorkings,  94. 

Dressing  ducks,  33. 

Dressing  turkeys,  51. 

DucU  culture,  24. 

Ducks,  growing  for  stock,  33. 

Egg  production,  129, 146. 

Eggs,  beginning  with,  97. 

Embdeii  geese,  35. 

Essentials  in  winter  egg  production,  147. 

Exhibitions,  some  evils  of,  133. 

External  characters,  value  of,  114. 

External  parasites,  106. 

Failures  in  poultry  keeping,  52. 

Faking,  133. 

Fancy  points,  value  of,  115. 

Farmers'  poultry,  61. 

Farmer,  what  poultry  culture  offers  the,  7C. 

Farm  for  poultry,  77. 

Fats  in  food,  131. 

Fattening  turkeys,  49. 

Feeding  breeding  ducks,  28. 

Feeding  ducklings,  30. 

Feeding  goslings,  41. 

Feeding  turkeys,  48. 

F<-lch's  breeding  chart,  11. 

Fences  for  ducks,  25. 

Fences  for  geese,  38. 

Fickleness  in  poultry  culture,  59. 

Flavor  in  eggs,  129. 

Flock,  number  of  ducks  in,  26. 

Foul  feathers,  13*. 

Fowls  described, 86. 

Fowls  not  as  represented,  144. 

French  class,  95. 

Fresh  eggs,  129. 


INDEX. 


159 


Game  fowls,  95. 

Gape  worm,  111. 

General  purpose  breeds,  89. 

Golden  Wyandottes,  92. 

Goose  culture,  34. 

Grade  fowls,  86. 

Grass  land  for  poultry,  75. 

Green  food  for  ducks,  28. 

Green  food  for  goslings,  41. 

Green  foods,  substitutes  for,  131. 

Grove  Hill  poultry  yards,  76. 

Hallock's  rations  for  ducks,  31. 

Hamburgs,  88. 

Hargraves'  ration  for  turkeys,  49 

Hatching  ducklings,  29. 

Hatching  goslings,  39. 

Hatching  turkeys,  47. 

Head  characters,  119. 

Heredity,  8, 17. 

Honesty  the  best  policy,  145. 

Houdans,  95. 

Houses  for  geese,  38. 

How  many  breeds,  9ti. 

Importations,  early,  87. 
Inbreeding,  5. 
Indian  Game,  95. 
Indigestion,  152. 
Indiscriminate  breeding,  7. 
Internal  parasites.  110. 
Intestinal  worms,  112. 

Judges,  collusion  of  exhibitors  and,  137. 

Killing  ducks,  33. 
Kinds  of  fowls,  86. 

Labor,  58. 

Lame  fowls,  151. 

Laying  out  poultry  plants,  75. 

Learning  poultry  keeping,  59, 103. 

Leghorns,  93. 

Lice,  106. 

*'  Like  begets  like,"  7, 

Line  breeding,  5, 10. 

Local  poultry  associations,  154. 

Locating  poultry  plants,  75. 

Location,  57. 

Location  for  duck  growing,  25. 

Maokey's  ration  for  turkeys,  48. 

Market  duck  culture,  24. 

Marketing  ducks,  32. 

Marketing  geese,  42. 

Mating  geese,  38. 

McFetrldge's  ration  for  ducks,  28. 

Mediterranean  class,  93. 

Mendel  law,  19. 

Minorcas,  94. 

Mites,  107. 

Model  plants,  79. 

Mongrel  fowls,  86. 

Mongrel  goose,  35. 

Morality  in  poultry  business,  139. 

Moral  science  for  exhibitors,  133. 

Mouse,  application  of  Mendel  law  to,  21. 

Narragansett  turkeys,  44. 


Natural  condition,  133.    . 
Nest  for  turkey, 46. 
Newman's  rations  for  geese,  39. 
Nomenclature,  poultry,  125. 
Novices'  errors,  53. 

Objections  to  inbreeding  G. 
Obsolete  types  and  characters,  19. 
Ordering  stock,  99. 
Organizations  of  poultrymeu  154. 
Original  ideas,  57. 
Orpingtons  90. 

Parasites,  external,  106. 
Parasites,  internal,  110. 
Partridge  Plymouth  Rocks,  92, 
"Peaked  "fowls,  120. 
Pekin  ducks,  24. 
Phenomena  of  heredity,  18. 
Plumage,  122. 
Plymouth  Rocks,  88. 
Polish,  88. 

Pollard's  comparisons  of  geese,  37. 
Pollard's  rations  for  ducks,  28,  81. 
Pomegranate  bark  for  worms,  113. 
Prepotency,  16. 
Prepotent  characters,  22 
Profit,  doing  work  at  a,  54. 
Pure  bred  fowls,  86. 

Quality  of  stock,  97. 

Hankin's  ration  for  ducks,  28, 31. 

Rations  for  geese.  39,  41. 

Rations  for  turkeys,  48. 

Rations,  winter,  148. 

Recessive  characters,  20. 

Recreation  in  poultry  keeping,  74, 

Red  Caps,  94. 

Returning  stock,  99 

Reversion,  18. 

Rhode  Island  mongrel  goose,  35 

Rhode  Island  Rtds.90, 92. 

Roost  for  turkeys,  50. 

Round  worms,  112. 

Rudd's  rations  for  geese,  39. 

Salaries  of  poultrymen,  73. 

Santouine  for  worms,  113. 

Scalded  food  for  ducks,  28. 

Scientific  feeding,  CO. 

Sectional  organizations,  154. 

Selecting  breeding  ducks,  27. 

Selection,  8. 

Selling  unsexed  fowls,  145. 

Shape,  117. 

Sick  fowls,  treating,  150. 

Silver  Laced  Wyandottes,  92. 

Silver  Penciled  Plymouth  Rocks,  92. 

Silver  Penciled  Wyandottes,  92. 

Size,  116. 

Skill,  how  acquired,  54. 

SUin,  texture  of,  121. 

Slate  turkeys,  44. 

Spanish,  88. 

Standard,  86. 

Starving  for  indigestion,  1-V2. 

"  State"  poultry  associations,  154. 


160 


LLSSON5  IN  POULTRY  KLLPING  —  5LCOND  5LRIE5. 


Stocking  the  poultry  plant,  96. 
Substituting  eggs,  142. 
Systematizing  work,  58. 

Tail,  development  of,  120. 

Tape  worms,  112. 

Temperature  of  duck  brooder,  30. 

Testing  stock,  101. 

Theoretic  line  breeding,  11. 

Thompson  &  Co.'s  plant,  81. 

Toulouse  geese .  35. 

Turkey  growing,  43. 

Two  thousand  hen  plant,  81. 

Typical  ventures  In  poultry  keeping,  61. 

Unsexed  fowls,  selling,  145. 

Values  of  external  characters,  114. 
Variations,  18. 
Varieties  of  turkeys,  43. 
Varieties,  one  or  more,  96. 


Variety  in  food,  131. 
Visiting  poultry  farms,  85. 
Vitality,  loss  of,  7. 

Wages  of  poultrymen,  7 :. 

Washing  fowls,  135. 

Water  for  ducks,  32. 

Weber  Bros.'  rations  for  ducks,  28,  31. 

Weights  of  geese,  35. 

White  Holland  turkeys,  44. 

White  Leghorns,  93. 

White  Plymouth  Rocks,  91. 

Whitewash,  107. 

White  Wyandottes,  92. 

Wilbur's  rations  for  geese,  39. 

Wings,  size  and  shape  o-f,  120. 

Winter  eggs,  147. 

Winter  rations,  148. 

Worms,  111. 

Wyandottes,  89. 


L!>  2l-50m-l,'33 


YC  20392 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


Nothing  on  Earth 

WILL 

MaKe  Hens  Lay 

LIKE 

Sierita's  Coni 


Given  to  newly  hatched  chickens  it  insures  their  health 
and  makes  them  strong.  Persist  in  its  use  and  the  pul- 
lets will  lay  early  and  through  the  winter,  when  egga 
are  high.  Invaluable  for  molting  hens, 

It  is  a  Scientifically  Prepared 
Food  Digestive. 

Absolutely  pure  and  highly  concentrated ;  mixed  with 
any  kind  of  food  it  will  cause  perfect  assimilation,  and 
result  in  healthy  birds  producing  abundance  of  eggs. 
It  was  the  Dioneer  of  all  advertised  poultry  tonics;  there 
are  many  imitations,  but  Sheridan's  Powder  has 
never  had  an  equal.  In  large  cans  costs  less  than  a  tenth 
of  a  cent  a  day.  If  you  can't  find  it  send  to  us. 

Single  pack  25  cts.;  five  $1.  Large  two-lb.  can  81.20 :  six 
cans  $5.  Exp.  paid.  Sample  "BEST  POULTRY  PAPKR"  free. 
I.  8.  JOHJS&ON  &  CO.,  232  Summer  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 


